All of the planets of the Solar system, with the exception of Pluto, have been visited by a spacecraft and a new era of more intensive investigation of particular planets will begin with the approaching conclusion of the reconnaissance phase of planetary exploration. Magellan, Mars Observer, Cassini, and Lunar Scout are examples of programs that will provide the opportunity to devise and implement detailed exploration strategies. The development of maps that depict the physical, geological and geodetic characteristics of a planet to be explored is a primary requirement for the implementation of post-reconnaissance exploration strategies. The Lunar Scout Program will produce the necessary maps for the Moon.

Surface topography is one of the fundamental measurements required to understand the structure and evolution of planetary bodies. Specifically, topographic data constitute an important input into a variety of studies in geophysics, geology, and atmospheric circulation. Topog raphic measurements with long-wavelength integrity provide a basis for interpreting the gravity field and determining the internal structure, state of stress and isostatic compensation of planetary lithospheres. Regional-scale topography and derived topographic gradients are required in geological investigations of fluid and lava flow, erosion, volcanic and impact processes. In addition, topography provides an important constraint on global atmospheric circulation models.

The high resolution stereo camera (HRSC) and the wide-angle optoelectronic stereo scanner (WAOSS) are remote sensing instruments to be flown on board the Russian Mars '94 spacecraft. Both sensors provide permanent stereo capability using the 3-line stereo concept. Full three dimensional information about the topography of the Martian surface can be derived from this kind of imagery, e.g., digital terrain models (DTMs), and orthoimages. With respect to the digital nature of the primary data, the photogrammetric processing will be carried out completely in the digital domain. The paper deals with the photogrammetric restitution of HRSC and WAOSS imagery, which is one of the main tasks of the Mars '94 camera experiments. The restitution process consists of three main procedures, i.e., the interactive acquisition of image coordinates of ground control points, the automatic determination of conjugate points in the image strips, and the photogrammetric point determination via bundle block adjustment. Considering the nature of the Martian surface (poor texture, weak ground control information) and the properties of the HRSC and WAOSS imagery (different ground pixel resolution, compressed data, etc.) special algorithms will be designed and developed. Results obtained using both practical and simulated data are presented and evaluated.

NASA's project to map planet Venus in the Magellan mission has become a great success, resulting in an unprecedented set of radar images covering the entire planet, much of it with more than one image. While not part of the nominal mission plan and original NASA program, this data set has been demonstrated to support the extraction of detailed topographic data with accuracies in the range of perhaps +/- 200 m. We discuss in this paper the techniques which were used so far to obtain such data, and we support the proposal to use the Magellan image data set to develop a topographic elevation model of all areas covered by multiple images. This will not only result in topographic data, but also in a set of co-registered and ortho-rectified images which can be the basis of a unique and modern image data base and information system about the planet for use by future generations of planetary scientists.

A digital workstation was developed and is currently at the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in Flagstaff, Arizona to be used for Venus topographic mapping. The system is based on a mapping and geocoding image correlation (GIS MAGIC) system developed by Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC) for the creation of precisely geocoded imagery data bases for both optical and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery. A multitude of data from various sources has been processed, including conventional aerial photographs, airborne and orbital SAR, and Spot. This paper covers the GIS MAGIC development history, hardware/software features and capabilities. Also covered are the types of modifications required to accommodate Venus radar data and results which can be achieved using the GIS MAGIC System.

The information contained in the slopes and locations of zero-crossing points for band-limited images of the Lonquimay complex allows mapping of texture features. The band limited images are derived and processed in two different ways: GSF filtering leads to maps of zero- crossing density, which is associated with response to periodic structure, and a spatial filtering approach based on local feature statistics yields maps of surface roughness. The sources of these textural properties, particularly surface ridges and folds, are related to the physical characteristics and history of the lava flows and are also influenced by the underlying surface topography.

In many areas of application, such as medicine, robot technology, photogrammetry, etc., the acquisition of an abstract description of three dimensional objects is an important task. Our approach is directed to an integrated system called SMART (Segmentation Matching And Reconstruction) that is based on general purpose equipment (general purpose workstation, photographic camera or CCD camera). It is designed as a self-calibrating system, i.e., the camera positions, as well as their relative orientations, are derived automatically during the evaluation of the image series. Hence the photos need not be taken by a specially trained person. The whole procedure within the SMART system can be reflected in a vision pipeline (see section). After the image acquisition we perform a rough segmentation of the images (1) to find characteristic geometric primitives of the objects and to reject non characteristic ones whose occurrence is unavoidable during the acquisition process and (2) to calculate the camera positions approximately. Based on this information we measure the exact positions of the characteristic details and their correspondence. This data allows the usage of self-calibrating reconstruction algorithm. Now, the obtained partial reconstructions are connected to one complete reconstruction.

The problem of rapidly generating accurate object material descriptor databases of the earth's surface has been approached using a quantized rendering transform to code photogrammetric image measurements into physical surface parameters. The approach eliminates the lighting effect inherent in aerial photos which view earth surface elements from different perspectives. It reduces the multi-aspect photographic spectral measurements to objective surface properties which are then used for automated object and surface material classification. This paper presents the algorithms and design for a terrain database creation workstation used to generate 1 meter resolution data. The system was used to digitize approximately 200 aerial photos covering a 400 sq km area of Ft. Hunter Liggett, Calif. and translated into a 1.2 gigabyte surface descriptor database. Included in the workstation is a parallel processing, transputer- based, perspective view generator which uses the rendering transform to calculate side views at real-time rates. The use of this subsystem as a real-time feedback and quality control mechanism during database creation is described and the technique extended to real-time terrain database update systems.

Liability of database providers for erroneous information provided in a database which leads to economic, personal, or property injury to a third party who relies on that information is predicated on there being a `special relationship' between the party that created the database or the publisher of that database and the party relying on the information to its detriment. Absent such special relationship constitutional concerns that the transmission of ideas be free flowing will take precedence over the injuries suffered by a third party who relies on those ideas.

In this paper, we present an introductory analysis of errors which degrade the accuracy of ocean topography estimation via marine interfacial stereophotogrammetry. We describe the error of range estimation due to parameters such as the sensor range and look angle, sensor footprint geometry, camera SNR (signal-to-noise ratio), as well as image distortions due to atmospheric and in-water scattering and absorption. Additionally, we discus the propagation of such distortions through our disparity computation algorithm, which is based upon the cepstrum of the received stereo pair. Particular attention is given to the problems of periodic ocean wave patterns, correlation between target, background, and surface illumination patterns, as well as sensor configuration. Given synthetic sea surfaces with controlled periodicities, simulated sensor error, and carefully constrained optical distortions, we discuss conditions under which the predicted range error can be held within the design limit of +/- 10 cm at ranges up to 71 meters, under constraint of a 1.5 m sea state and clear air.

Key to the accurate quantification of optical distortions incurred by viewing through a refractive interface is a well-defined knowledge of interfacial structure. We have previously demonstrated [1,2] the feasibility of restoring imagery degraded by simulated viewing through the sea surface. In a companion paper [3] ,we discussed the effect of physical processes such as reflection, scattering, and absorption upon the accuracy of stereophotgrammetric estimation of sea topography. In particular, we analyzed limitations upon the range accuracy of the stereo vision paradigm, and discussed corruption of the disparity computation by backscattered irradiance which was correlated with the interfacial reflectance pattern. In this preliminary paper, we discuss implementational constraints upon the accuracy of restoring trans-MBL (Marine Boundary Layer) imagery, especially when the interfacial topography is erroneous. We summarize results derived in the companion paper, which contains an analysis of the range errors obtained from our proposed stereo vision sensor and disparity computation algorithm. We then discuss how such results are affected by different sensor configurations, and analyze how errors might further arise from the physical processes involved in airborne sensing environments. In particular, we analyze the effect of interfacial ranging error upon feature localization in the reconstructed target. A discussion of implementational techniques for compensating range error emphasizes practical issues of optical and electro-optical sensor design.

The Arizona Projects Office (APO) Engineering Support Division has recently completed a comparison test of conventional survey and close range photogrammetric mensuration techniques at a construction site for a dam in central Arizona. This paper is an analysis of the techniques used with an emphasis on accuracy, time and cost.

To individuals working with photogrammetric analysis (dimensional reconstruction) of close- range photogrammetry using hand-held or video cameras there are certain situation tasks confronting them with a dimensional reconstruction analysis from a reverse projection procedure. Close-range reverse projection is analogous to completing a resection procedure manually, i.e., either the original negative, or an enlarged positive is aligned (position and orientation) to locate the original camera station. The tasks could require verifying the accuracy of a reverse projection procedure application; or, the task could be as an expert witness in opposition to another expert using reverse projection. The method of reverse projection is for all practical purposes an uncontrolled close-range photogrammetric attempt at aerial rectification. This discussion quantitatively defines the errors associated with the close- range reverse projection through two examples. To compound the error propagation the photograph provided for analysis is usually a cropped enlargement, e.g., 3' X 5', 8' X 10', and so on.

Our space organization expertise has already been in full-blown space high-technological operations for pedagogical uses. Our space sciences are integrated into a cycle on terrestrial/close-range photogrammetry and remote sensing laboratory set-up. We have used terrestrial/close-range photogrammetry for crime detection on the R. F. Navarro Building as used for support in Supreme Court Case No. 102313 because of the principal need for accurate scale references. But if the photogrammetric work must be tied to an object coordinate system, this can usually be done later by rigid transformations to a few (even partially) known points on the object and as our organization is now specializing with the crime detection of a certain prewar R. F. Navarro Building with Cadastral Record Survey No. 189 (MNL-Manila, Philippines) using terrestrial/close-range photogrammetry to detect the criminal culprits in using preponderance-of-evidence for legal and scientific uses in Supreme Court Case G.R. No. 102313. So far, the results of our legal and scientific uses in Supreme Court case research are outlined and the outcome of this position paper.

Originally the research project was born to prepare a series of tools able to handle images, vectors, and tabular data of historical monuments. The project is based on the necessity of creating a fundamental knowledge of buildings that have a consistent historical and cultural value and are located in zone under seismic activity; its aim is to evaluate potential damages in a very short time by means of a structure analysis. An analysis of ancient damages in the same buildings is a source of good indicative information on old and, in some cases, unknown earthquake activity; this subject is treated by other groups inside the same big project. All this should be made by a methodology that acquires and converts all data concerning the buildings under evaluation, that is all data on the generic raster image are converted in vectors relating to their maximum significance, referring to ancillary historical data. The package being prepared is called Historical Monument Classifier (HMC) with a highlight goal to acquire, copy, enhance, rotate, rectify (perspective correction) images and draw vectors on them. The methodology that we explain with this paper points out the possibility of an orthogonal plot, even if concise, for almost flat or significant three-dimensional objects that are performed via a non-photogrammetric device.

Agfa Aviphot Color N200, Agfa Aviphot Color H100, Kodak Aerocolor Negative 2445, and Kodak RAS 686 were subjected to aerial and laboratory testing. The films were exposed at scales of 1:40,000, 1:20,000, and 1:5,000. A number of ground targets common to the four films were identified and measured densitometrically. The densitometric readings were converted to Munsell Color System designations to provide a comparative reference for color and saturation differences. Hue shifts of 5% (1:20,000) to 19% (1:5,000) were encountered between films. Color saturation levels were noted to be higher with the Agfa H100 film. Sensitometric tests using normal, one push, and two push processing were also performed to evaluate average gradients, film speeds, and color bias for the four films. Characteristic curve symmetry was most adversely affected by push processing the Kodak Aerocolor 2445 film and least adversely affected by pushing the Kodak RAS 686 film. EAFS values consistently increased with the Agfa emulsions but remained stable or decreased with the Kodak emulsions during push processing. Color bias generally tended to the red with the C-41 type films and blue-magenta with the Kodak 2445 film. Resolution characteristics were analyzed by photographing a bar ground target at the 1:5,000 scale. Best resolution performance (normal processing) was noted with the Agfa N200 and Kodak RAS 686 films.

Interior orientation (the initial step in comparator-based photogrammetry) requires a set of known photo-coordinates to act as reference points. Fiducials serve this purpose on metric survey cameras as do reseau targets on small-format, semi-metric cameras. Standard small cameras, however, are equipped with neither fiducials nor a reseau plate. To overcome this problem three attempts were made to create small-format camera coordinates. In the first method a clear template with four calibrated cross-hair targets was superimposed on a 35 mm diapositive (after the film was exposed). The second technique installed fiducials in the 35 mm camera body. In the third technique, original 645 imagery was custom enlarged so as to expose the entire frame edge on the print.

Abstract not available.

In 1989 the Center for Mapping of The Ohio State University established a major research program that focuses on the development of mobile mapping systems. Typically, these devices capture a comprehensive set of land-related data from airplanes, cars or trains. Spatial positions and attributes of objects are extracted automatically in the mobile system or during post-processing, and are immediately transferred to a multi-media geographic database. The motivation for the development of mobile mapping technologies was fostered by the need of current and accurate spatial data for geographic information systems. This article investigates different concepts of mobile data acquisition systems which were designed and implemented at The Ohio State University.

A new method of extraction of unstable periodic orbits from chaotic dynamics is presented. This method is founded on a theorem of mutual redefinition between numbers (space) and processes (dynamics) to solve diagonalization problems. The computational relevance of the method is discussed in view of grating a characterization of chaotic dynamics in linear (not exponential) time. A possible informational use of this method is sketched.

HY-GRO '92 is a project currently carried out by the Ocean Mapping Group at the University of New Brunswick. One of the purposes of this project is the investigation of the relationship between acoustic mapping data and the actual ocean seabed bathymetry. In order to facilitate the comparison, ground truthing information (Digital Elevation Model) has been collected using stereo aerial photography of tidal areas at low tide. The required DEM accuracy is in the magnitude of a few centimeters. A reasonable photoscale for providing the required DEM accuracy would be 1:3750. With a focal length of 80 mm the flying height has to be 300 m. In that case the ground coverage of the 57 X 57 mm² image format is 214 X 214 m². It is clear that for large areas of interest (in our case: 2.5 X 2.5 km²) while maintaining the necessary overlap (60%) and sidelap (30%), the number of photographs and control points becomes unreasonably high, thus making the use of the small format camera not attractive anymore. The above encountered problem was solved with the acquisition of the original images in a four times smaller scale (1:15,000, flying height 1200 m, ground coverage 857 X 857 m²). Using a quality enlarger, the original images are enlarged by the same factor, so that the final image product is at the desired scale. The enlargement introduces effects of lens distortions and film deformations but they are again taken care of by the self calibrating bundle adjustment.

A system to conduct airborne remote sensing campaigns by means of CCD cameras and associated navigation and positioning equipment is presented. The system is under further development at the University of Mexico, but has been tested in several missions to evaluate its functional characteristics. The paper describes the various components of the system, such as cameras, aircraft mounting, pointing subsystem, GPS, location of view axis, real time monitoring and enhancement of ground details, as well as spectral filters and bands utilized, the interaction between obtained images, attitude data and a geographic information system for mosaic reconstruction, pilot navigation aids, and test polygons. The operation of the system has been demonstrated to be highly economical, reliable and relatively simple to use. It can also be fitted to various types of aircraft and helicopters, and may be used to conduct many types of missions such as: crop discrimination and mapping, urban settlement studies, land use charts, soil erosion evaluation, forest health, urban thermal island characterization, plant disease studies, and many more. A description of the flow of information from image capture to paper map is included, together with the methodology necessary to derive, from the images obtained, a multimedia system that handles a georeferenced data base for consultation by personnel of diverse backgrounds.

The rationale for duplicating original aerial negatives in Alberta is investigated. Duplicating films produced by Kodak and Agfa are compared. These materials used in photographic duplication are `one step direct duplicating' films which produce a duplicate negative from the original negative. Kodak's duplicate negative has a typical greenish cast to the image, while the Agfa product is neutral. The contrast of the materials is markedly different, the Agfa PD1p provides a much higher reproduction contrast than the Kodak 2422. Both materials perform sluggishly in contrast changes with respect to development times. the sensitivity of the two products differs slightly. Exposure times are approximately twice as long with Agfa material. For short exposure times this difference is not crucial, but when long exposure times are required, the geometric increase in the differences can be significant. The spectral sensitivities of both materials are `blue sensitive' or orthochromatic. Interpreter evaluations showed higher preference from prints produced from the Agfa duplicate negatives rather than prints from the original negatives. Photogrammetric evaluations indicated that diapositives produced from the duplicate negatives were as acceptable as those from the original negatives.

In order to have a good appreciation of the present, one must first examine a little history of our industry in the areas of equipment and purpose. Orthophoto imaging with its many techniques has been with us since the early thirties. The word ortho or orthogonal simply means vertical and much time has been expended on trying to achieve this type of projection not only over the prospective center of a photo image but also above every point imaged in the photography.

A digital orthophoto can be obtained by rectifying a digitized perspective aerial photo. The orthorectification requires a terrain elevation model to remove the displacement caused by terrain relief. This paper describes a technique for partitioning a large photo into multiple subimages, mapping them onto the array processor for rectifications, and combining the results into an orthophoto. The combination of innovative algorithms and the massively parallel processor architecture leads to a significant improvement in throughput of digital orthophoto production.

This paper presents the concept, production, and application of a softcopy orthophoto system. Although OrthoView is a commercially available computer software package, the paper concentrates on its overall design and functionality, especially its unique advantages in implementation which ensure a production environment in the production of softcopy orthophotos (called digital orthophotos in the rest of the paper). The goal and implementation of OrthoView is emphasized on commercially available, off-the-shelf computer hardware. OrthoView is a powerful, flexible, complete, fully tested, and low cost digital orthophoto workstation which is one of the very few stand-alone commercial products available to many potential users now.

Interesting opportunities are presenting themselves for `just-in-time' mapping using images registered to the ground. In the 1990s and beyond, the preferred deliverable may no longer be a map, but a viewing technique -- that is, a desktop workstation equipped with data and software capable of creating map images upon demand. The end user will receive a CD-ROM library of GPS controlled photos; or, raw stereo pairs, plus a mathematical representation of digital elevations and land base registration points. The user will be able to produce highly customized image-based maps, on-the-fly.

An image map is a hardcopy cartographic product consisting of rectified imagery overlaid with graphical features and surrounded by marginalia. Image maps contain far more information than conventional maps and will be a major product of mapping systems of the future. Recent advances in computer hardware design have made it possible to generate image maps on commercial hardware platforms at moderate cost and with high throughput rates. This advance is due primarily to increased computer speeds, larger disk capacities, and high-resolution monitors. This paper describes several issues that arose during the design and implementation of the Digital Photogrammetric Workstation (DPW) at GDE Systems - Helava Associates, Inc. The DPW is built from off-the-shelf hardware, components and performs softcopy image exploitation tasks such as image map production, image enhancement, terrain extraction, and perspective scene rendering.

Resource managers are turning toward digital information systems for help in making decisions on the disposition of the resources in their care. Airborne remote sensing technologies have proven to be a cost effective method of providing timely information. Unfortunately, the digital airborne technologies that are currently in use are not widely available, are expensive, and of limited spatial resolution. A practical solution to the problem of providing information in digital form is to use widely available commercial technologies: digitized video, digitized still video, digital still cameras, Kodak Photo CD, and digitized photography. This paper examines and compares the quality, cost effectiveness and practicality of the use of the digital imagery acquired by these systems as it relates to the utility in resource management activities. The conclusions drawn show how applications dictate the minimum quality requirements and therefore the technology chosen.

A digital photogrammetric workstation (DPW) is an analytical stereoplotter that utilizes digital imagery for photogrammetric purposes. Recent trends in the computer industry's price/performance have already made cost-effective DPWs a reality. High-performance computers, high-speed image processing, lower memory cost, inexpensive mass storage, image compression/decompression techniques, and high-resolution monitors are now available commercially. In this paper, accuracy and performance of digital photogrammetric products on Intergraph's InterMap Digital (IMD) are compared against the InterMap Analytic (IMA). For such comparison, several aerial photographs of different scales are scanned at different pixel sizes using the Intergraph's PhotoScan. Orientation steps, with identical options and parameters, are performed by several operators on both systems. Digital Elevation Models (DEM) are also collected on the IMD and IMA and generated automatically by the MATCH-T program, developed by Inpho GmbH, Germany. Orientation and DEM results of all stereo pairs obtained by several operators are compared. Several statistical indicators, on the accuracy of the data, are extracted and some concluding remarks, regarding the performance of the operational steps, are provided.

The ability to recover cost by the sale of geographic information is dependent upon the ownership of the copyright in and to that information. The ownership of the copyright turns upon whether one entity is an employee of the other or whether the copyrightable work falls within certain statutorily defined categories in the copyright law. Absent the specific requirements being fulfilled the ownership of the data may not be exactly as the parties expect.

Digital ortho-images provide great advantages in comparison to their analogue counterparts, especially with respect to flexibility, production of derived products, and combination with other data sets. Today, production of digital ortho-images has become more operational due to the development of more powerful computers with sufficient resources, easier acquisition of input data, increased generation of digital data, development of many commercial ortho-image production systems, and new application areas, particularly in connection to GIS and digital mapping. Different aspects of integration of ortho-images in GIS and the related requirements are addressed. The paper focusses on the different extensions and possible uses of ortho- images in a GIS. Today digital ortho-images are primarily used either for visualization or as a backdrop. However, ortho-images offer many, to a large extent unexploited possibilities, especially for the update of digital maps, automated mapping, and the generation of new data bases. Different modes for the extraction of 3-D information and object classification are presented. The paper concludes with an outline of future trends in research and development.

There are many applications, such as pilot training, mission rehearsal, and hardware-in-the- loop simulation, which require the generation of realistic images of terrain and man-made objects in real-time. One approach to meeting this requirement is to drape photo-texture over a planar polygon model of the terrain. The real time system then computes, for each pixel of the output image, the address in a texture map based on the intersection of the line-of-sight vector with the terrain model. High quality image generation requires that the terrain be modeled with a fine mesh of polygons while hardware costs limit the number of polygons which may be displayed for each scene. The trade-off between these conflicting requirements must be made in real-time because it depends on the changing position and orientation of the pilot's eye point or simulated sensor. The traditional approach is to develop a data base consisting of multiple levels of detail (LOD), and then selecting for display LODs as a function of range. This approach could lead to both anomalies in the displayed scene and inefficient use of resources. An approach has been developed in which the terrain is modeled with a set of nested polygons and organized as a tree with each node corresponding to a polygon. This tree is pruned to select the optimum set of nodes for each eye-point position. As the point of view moves, the visibility of some nodes drops below the limit of perception and may be deleted while new points must be added in regions near the eye point. An analytical model has been developed to determine the number of polygons required for display. This model leads to quantitative performance measures of the triangulation algorithm which is useful for optimizing system performance with a limited display capability.

Elevational and latitudinal shifts will occur in the flora and vegetation of the Rocky Mountains due to climate warming. If we are to specify which species are successfully migrating in tune with these changes, and which are being adversely impacted, a 4-dimensional image-based GIS is required to visualize and animate new ecological regimes imposed by changing temperature and precipitation patterns. Research at TAC aims to develop a new algorithm for a terrain model that includes the spatial, spectral, and temporal domains. It is designed to visualize changes in the Rocky Mountain flora, and to specify the predicted community compositions at any future time. The strategy is to assign unique hue, intensity, and saturation values for each of the nearly 6000 species comprising the flora of the Rockies. Hue is assigned on the basis of elevational zone; intensity on the basis of slope and aspect; and saturation, on the basis of abundance. Polygons for an associated GIS are delineated as landform facets that are expected to be stable in ecological time (i.e., over the next few thousand years). The analysis then assesses the gradual progression of species as they migrate upslope and poleward through these polygons. At any future year over the next several thousand, the modeling process can be stopped to assess both the rate and directions of change, as well as the species composition of each plant community occupying a specific polygon.

Abstract not available.

This paper examines the use of scientific visualization techniques and a geographic information system (GIS)-based `movie' to examine the Chesapeake Bay water quality data. Following the suggestion of Knapp (1992) and Buttenfield and Ganter (1990), the paper follows the framework of problem identification, data analysis, illustration, and decision making. The images shown in the demonstration are volumetric interpolation model results. The model result files were transferred to a Macintosh II and visualized using a mapping and visualization program. The resulting PICT files are then displayed sequentially by animation software.

Advances in instrumentation, data processing, and classification of image data are planned for the future by NASA, NOAA, DoD, other government agencies, and the commercial sector through the next decade. The full exploitation of both image and other data types make it incumbent on the researcher to stay abreast of multiple areas. A review of these items, the projected massive quantities of data to be captured by satellites and aircraft in the future, and the merger of raster/vector data are considered in the context of problems visible now, new problems, and their impact on the researcher using GIS for future applications. Imaging systems include Landsat, SPOT, multichannel radiometers carried on aircraft, and camera systems. As data are made available new and different applications evolve. Projections of some known applications and their utility in the future of GIS, data volumes, and the sufficiency of small work stations to handle vast quantities of image data, population data, DTM data, and other GIS layers are addressed.

Abstract not available.