Flat panel display research has comprised a substantial portion of the national investment in new technology for economic and national security for the past nine years. These investments have ben made principally via several Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) programs, known collectively as the continuing High Definition Systems Program, and the Office of the Secretary of Defense Production Act Title III Program. Using input from the Army, Navy, and Air Force to focus research and identify insertion opportunities, DARPA and the Title III Program Office have made investments to develop the national technology base and manufacturing infrastructure necessary to meet the twin challenge of providing affordable displays in current systems and enabling the DoD strategy of winning future conflicts by getting more information to all participants during the battle. These research programs are reviewed and opportunities for applications are described. Future technology development, transfer, and transition requirements are identified. Strategy and vision are documented to assist the identification of areas meriting further consideration.

A cockpit revolution is in the making. Many of the much ballyhooed, much promised, but little delivered technologies of the 70's and 80's will finally come of age in the 90's just in time to complement the data explosion coming from sensor and processor advances. Technologies such as helmet systems, large flat panel displays, speech recognition, color graphics, decision aiding and stereopsis, are simultaneously reaching technology maturities that promise big payoffs for the third generation cockpit and beyond. The first generation cockpit used round dials to help the pilot keep the airplane flying right side up. The second generation cockpits used multifunction displays and the HUD to interface the pilot with sensors and weapons. What might the third generation cockpit look like. How might it integrate many of these technologies to simplify the pilots life and most of all: what is the payoff. This paper will examine tactical cockpit problems, the technologies needed to solve them and recommend three generations of solutions.

The success of the US display industry, both in providing high-performance displays for the US Department of Defense at reasonable cost and in capturing a significant share of the global civilian market, depends on maintaining technological leadership and on building efficient manufacturing capabilities. The US Display Consortium (USDC) was set up in 1993 by the US Government and private industry to guide the development of the infrastructure needed to support the manufacturing of flat panel displays. This mainly involves the supply of equipment and materials, but also includes the formation of partnerships and the training of a skilled labor force. Examples are given of successful development projects, some involving USDC participation, others through independent efforts of its member companies. These examples show that US-based companies can achieve leadership positions in this young and rapidly growing global market.

In an effort to raise the efficiency and speedup the rate of technology transfer from its university funded research programs, DARPA has ben encouraging the formation of industry/university teams to accelerate the development of backplane thin-film electronics for AMLCD displays. The effort among its university researchers has been carried forward through voluntary participation in a series of workshops cosponsored by DARPA and the Electric Power Research Institute. Evidence of the effectiveness of the teaming arrangement is shown by the many collaborations entered by the display industry participants.

This paper highlights some future cockpit drivers that will impact requirements for electronic display hardware. Drivers such as crew reduction, laser protection, real-time information in the cockpit, and uninhabited combat air vehicles will increase the demands on electronic display hardware. Regardless of new cockpit drivers, the primary feature of electronic displays that must be maintained is the capability to provide pilots with formats that will optimize their situation awareness. These formats place certain requirements on the display hardware itself.

It has often been assumed that the primary application of flat panel cockpit displays is in the presentation of computer generated data and 'virtual' environments. However, technology developments in the field of panoramic and panospheric imaging are dramatically influencing the anticipated development path of cockpit displays. Panospheric imaging (PI) is a technology which allows a substantially spherical field-of-view to be captured, digitally processed, and presented to an observer in the form of a fully immersive, stereoscopic, perspective corrected image or true panoramic strip image in still and full motion formats. The exploitation of PI is currently being limited by inadequate displays. To date, available displays are incapable of competently presenting the cylindrical or spherical visual fields to an operator. Ongoing research and development programs at Defence Research Establishment Suffield have demonstrated the ability to effectively capture and process substantially spherical fields of view. Current research programs are focused on advancing PI technologies toward application in Armored Fighting Vehicles, unmanned systems, and other commercial sectors.

The National Research Council's (NRC) Cockpit Technologies Program flight tested a stereoscopic 3D display format to determine the feasibility of using pictorial and stereoscopic cues during helicopter instrument approach procedures (IAP). Three qualified test pilots flew a series of approach procedures using a modified conventional electronic flight instrumentation format, a pictorial display formate, and a pictorial stereoscopic display format. The preliminary evaluation focused on the effect of display format on pilot performance during the approach task, from an approach intercept to the decision height. Performance criteria such as aircraft speed error, localizer error, and glide slope error were measured. Additionally, pilots answered a questionnaire on each display format, and rated the workload required to fly the approaches using the Cooper-Harper scale. Pilots were able to complete approaches to safe landings using any of the display formats. Pilots reported that the pictorial format improved their situation awareness during the approach. Pilots also reported that the stereo cues incorporated in the display design did not significantly enhance their ability to perform IAP. The pictorial display contained several strong monocular depth cues such as occlusion, linear perspective, and motion flow; therefore the stereo cues were of limited value. Pilots most preferred the conventional display, which provided the most accurate tracking capabilities and lowest workload. Pilots encountered a few acceptance problems with the stereo display, most notably, losing the stereo effect when viewing the prototype stereo display off the central viewing axis.

The CAVE is a multi-person, room-sized, high-resolution, 3D video and auditory environment, which can be used to present very immersive virtual environment experiences. This paper describes the CAVE technology and the capability of the CAVE system as originally developed at the Electronics Visualization Laboratory of the University of Illinois- Chicago and as more recently implemented by Wright State University (WSU) in the Armstrong Laboratory at Wright- Patterson Air Force Base (WPAFB). One planned use of the WSU/WPAFB CAVE is research addressing the appropriate design of display and control interfaces for controlling uninhabited aerial vehicles. The WSU/WPAFB CAVE has a number of features that make it well-suited to this work: (1) 360 degrees surround, plus floor, high resolution visual displays, (2) virtual spatialized audio, (3) the ability to integrate real and virtual objects, and (4) rapid and flexible reconfiguration. However, even though the CAVE is likely to have broad utility for military applications, it does have certain limitations that may make it less well- suited to applications that require 'natural' haptic feedback, vestibular stimulation, or an ability to interact with close detailed objects.

Smiths Industries is a world class supplier of multi-purpose color displays for severe environment fast-jet and rotary wing applications. In this paper we describe the technical issues, design techniques and qualification experience gained through replacing shadow-mask cathode ray tube with active matrix liquid crystal display (AMLCD) devices in our 5 inch and 6 inch display products. The operational needs for primary flight/mission displays are reviewed from which display brightness, dimming range, contrast, viewing angle and resolution requirements are derived. These requirements when combined with the environment conditions found in a jet fighter cockpit challenge the display designer to find novel cost effective solutions. We shall discuss: the development of an AMLCD for severe environment applications; the development of a backlight to achieve long life, wide luminance range and compatibility with night vision imaging systems; mens to manage the local thermal environment of the AMLCD and the backlight. Practical realization of these solutions are demonstrated in our 5 inch and 6 inch multi- purpose color display products which have been qualified for flight in severe military environments. Operator and engineering evaluations have been made in representative lighting environments and through flight trials to compare the performance of AMLCD against our traditional 'de-facto' standard CRT products.

The primary objective of the Rotorcraft pilot's Associate (RPA) program is to enhance mission effectiveness of future combat helicopters through development and application of knowledge based associate systems for cognitive decision aiding. Enhanced mission capability is supported by an increase in pilot situational awareness made possible through the development of the associate and the integration of advanced sensors, controls, and displays. The crewstation display suite showcases ruggedized commercial of-the-shelf 12.1 inch diagonal, full color, 64 gray shade, XGA resolution AMLCDs. These multipurpose displays will be installed three abreast landscape style in the copilot gunner station of an AH-64D longbow apache helicopter for RPA system flight testing. The display program requirements and system architecture are outlined and discussed. The display unit subassembly details are provided with justification related to design level trade studies.

The No. 1 RAH-66 Comanche helicopter has been fitted with a dedicated multi-function cockpit instrumentation display system (CIDS) to provide real-time telemetry/instrumentation data to the flight test crew. In each crew station, the CIDS provides a color active matrix liquid crystal display (AMLCD) video terminal, two color AMLCD graphics terminals, switches, and light emitting diode indicators as a complement to the 'production'. AMLCDs driven by the installed mission equipment package (MEP) avionics. The CIDS operates from the telemetry system's airborne computer units which are independent of the MEP. The real-time telemetry and instrumentation information facilitates the flight test crew's ability to diagnose flight anomalies and provides insight into the performance of numerous aircraft systems. The video terminal AMLCD supports the selection of multiple pages of information - customized instruments can be programmed overnight to support the next days tests. The CIDS additionally provides a backup 'fly home' capability for the pilots should the MEP fail during flight tests. The CIDS has proven invaluable by providing the needed information to expedite performance of the flight test program.

The Abrams M1 Battlefield Tank has undergone several phases of performance enhancements since its introduction, improvements have covered updates to all the major components of the vehicle with major emphasis on the vetronics and man-machine interface. Through these enhancements of M1 has pioneered the utilization of flat panel display (FPD) technologies and the M1A2 version has an FPD at both the driver and gunner stations and a third at the commander position. These FPDs all employ electroluminescent (EL) imaging technology that is well suited for the severe vetronics environment. The latest M1A2 enhancements, being introduced as part of the M1A2 System Enhancement Package, include a flat panel AMLCD color tactical display which supersedes the earlier monochrome EL FPD used in this application, and a high resolution monochrome EL FPD for the second generation FLIR sensor, which supersedes the earlier bulky CRT display.

Liquid crystal display (LCD) deliver optimal performance when the entire display surface is isothermal and at a controllable temperature. This condition creates uniform electro-optical properties within the liquid crystal layer. This paper describes a dynamic, multicontact heater system that actively compensates for uneven heat loads, thereby creating the desired isothermal condition. The heater system includes a uniform resistive sheet, with multiple electrical contacts around the perimeter. A switch network connects each heater contact to a power supply, ground potential, or a high impedance. A microprocessor monitors the display temperature, and detects non-uniformity, and selectively applies heat to cold areas of the display. The dynamic heater system employs a variety of heating patterns to create the desired isothermal condition.Heating patterns vary in duration, power applied, and location on the display face. The microprocessor control loop can also detect and isolate faulty drive elements, and compensate for non- uniformity in the heater itself. The heater prevents stress- induced delaminations, mechanical distortions, and stress- induced birefringence in optical components. Test results indicate that a dynamic heater can be beneficial in the thermal design of LCD products.

Fluorescent backlights used for LCDs provide high efficacy, but at the expense of a strong temperature dependence and unusual electrical load parameters. The selection of drive regime and arc wave form can greatly affect the cathode life. Phosphor life has ben characterized as a function of wall loading and profile by others. The next cause of life reduction is cathode wear, which is addressed. A waveform is described that has been proven to provide long cathode life, both in the field and in ongoing life test. The fundamental tenant of minimizing the peak to RMS ration of the drive waveform has been applied. Additional cathode stress factors are identified, such as warm-up requirements, minimum temperature of operation and determining the critical value for cathode preheat. Types of filament preheat control are discussed, with the advantages and disadvantages of each presented. The second order effects of implementations are discussed. Summary data from an ongoing life test will be presented, indicating that with proper care and careful design, cathodes can easily achieve at least 75,000 hour life.

Polarizers have sensitivity to temperature and humidity combination. They are also sensitive to high doses of UV exposure. To guarantee a long life of a liquid crystal display the polarizers have either to be of special quality, or there should be special means to protect them. A study related to the long term stability have been conducted on several types of high efficiency iodine based polarizers. The test results and recommendations will be presented in this paper.

Liquid crystal displays have limitations of viewing angles. A loss of contrast and gray level inversion occur at wide angles. Use of retardation films drastically improves viewing envelops to have contrast ratios of greater than 10:1 at +/- 60 degrees horizontal and -5 degrees to +35 vertical. Data measured on few OIS wide viewing angles displays will be presented. Gray level separation and other related viewing angle issues will be discussed.

At the Cockpit Displays III conference, diffractive color separation was proposed as a means for improving both the performance and efficiency of liquid crystal displays. This paper discusses that approach in further detail as well as the progress made in attempting to develop the necessary technology. Specifically, progress has been made on two fronts: the development of the color separation element and the development of a low divergence backlight suitable for avionics direct view applications. The approach taken in these two developments is described as well as the current state of the development.

Active matrix displays that are lightweight, rugged and bendable are a key DoD need for applications ranging from panoramic displays for aircraft cockpits to foldable maps. To achieve such displays compatible substrates, TFT backplanes, and light valve/light emissive materials systems must be developed. Advances toward this goal achieved in the joint Penn State/Princeton Display Program are discussed.

The first monochrome, high resolution reflective 1/8 VGA liquid crystal displays have been built using various plastic substrates for body mounted and hand held applications. These displays have a contrast ratio of over 10:1 with a wide viewing angle. The reflectivity is about 40 percent and the frame update time is less than 2 seconds.

Field emission displays (FEDs) are being developed for a number of applications including military and commercial aircraft cockpit displays. This new type of display promises sunlight readability, high power efficiency, full color, high contrast, wide-angle viewing with no change in contrast or color as a function of angle, large dynamic range of light output including god dimmability, fast refresh, very high spatial resolution, and high pixel count in a window- pane thin package which has a viewing area which is from very small to very large.

This paper addresses the requirements for the design of a field emissive display for cockpit applications as well the results of preliminary performance evaluation from optical, electrical and environmental standpoints. The design requirements and the specific characteristics of a field emissive display are first reviewed prior to discussing the design rationale. The test setups used for the preliminary performance evaluation and the first test results are presented and reviewed.

The all solid state nature of thin film electroluminescent (TFEL) displays provides the technology with the resistance to the extreme environmental stresses which are required of displays to meet the military's requirements. Because of their rugged nature over 30,000 TFEL displays are in use in military applications in aircraft cockpits, army vehicles, naval ships, and man portable applications. Recent advances in the technology have enabled TFEL displays to meet requirements for multicolor, gray scale and high resolution wearable displays. This talk will give a general overview of the technology capabilities and the many military applications for TFEL displays.

We review recent progress in small molecule organic light emitting devices (OLEDs) with emphasis on their potential application to lightweight, head-up displays. We discuss OLEDs grown on thin, flexible, plastic substrates which may be bent over a radius of curvature of as little as 0.7 cm without damage and exhibit operating voltages and efficiencies similar to OLEDs grown on conventional glass substrates. Transparent OLEDs grown on such substrates create the potential for a new type of lightweight, full- color, OLED pixel in which the R, G and B emission layers are vertically stacked to provide a simple fabrication process, minimum pixel size, and maximum fill factor.

Organic light emitting diodes are a new flat panel display technology that offers high luminescent efficiencies. In this paper, with aspects of this new technology are reviewed and the limitations of the currently used passive matrix addressing are identified. New active matrix addressed organic light emitting diode displays are proposed that are based on the polysilicon TFT technology. Different polysilicon TFT active matrix pixel structures for OLED applications are described and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed. The characteristics of fabricated polysilicon TFT arrays for driving OLED are presented.

In this paper we will outline the theoretical and practical advantages of projection displays based on resonant microcavities. We will present results recently obtained for Eu:Y₂O₃ activated microcavities, compare them with theoretical models and discuss the impact of such devices. The extension to other optical systems will also be discussed.

Since the advent of radar in the 1940's there has been an increasing number os systems requiring the display of information to various levels of the military command structure. However, display technology has been a limiting factor in designing military systems. Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) are sensitive to vibration, are affected by the earth's magnetic field, require high voltage, emit RF signals, and are bulky and heavy. The military has been the foremost funding sources of display technology development here in the US. With the development of flat panel display technologies the military has finally been able to incorporate displays in field portable equipment, however these displays have limitations in brightness, ruggedness, and other factors that are problems in several key applications. One of these issues is the size limitation of flat panel displays. One of the compensating approaches taking a leap forward in application is the use of flat panel displays in projection systems. This paper will review the tradeoffs in these projectors, the interaction between sub-system component groups, design issues affecting ruggedness, and the performance of the final projector. In addition, a discussion is included on the impact of ambient light on the applicability of front and rear projection systems.

Industrial, consumer and military requirements for high resolution large screen data displays are taxing the capabilities of current display technologies,, such as cathode ray tubes, liquid crystal devices, digital mirror devices and plasma. Solid state laser projection provides a variety of advantages when used in displays with more than 1000 lines of resolution and measuring over 40 to 300 inches diagonally. Solid state laser technology can provide the best image quality in a compact package.

The polyplanar optical display (POD) is a unique display screen which can be used with any projection source. The prototype ten inch display is two inches thick and has a matte black face which allows for high contrast images. The prototype being developed is a form, fit and functional replacement display for the B-52 aircraft which uses a monochrome ten-inch display. In order to achieve a long lifetime, the new display uses a 100 milliwatt green solid- state laser at 532 nm as its light source. To produce real- time video, the laser light is being modulated by a digital light processing (DLP) chip manufactured by Texas Instruments. In order to use the solid-state laser as the light source and also fit within the constraints of the B-52 display, the digital micromirror device (DMD) circuit board is removed from the Texas Instruments DLP light engine assembly. Due to the compact architecture of the projection system within the display chassis, the DMD chip is operated remotely from the Texas Instruments circuit board. We discuss the operation of the DMD divorced from the light engine and the interfacing of the DMD board with various video formats including the format specific to the B-52 aircraft. A brief discussion of the electronics required to drive the laser is also presented.

Physical Optics Corporation (POC) has developed novel high- gain holographic non-Lambertian (HNL) screens for high- resolution flat panel displays, cockpit displays, and other military and commercial screen applications. These HNLs are composite holographic components that combine both diffusive and diffractive functions in a single element. These screens can control light energy distribution within a desired elliptical or circular cone and direction. As a result, the contrast and luminance of screens can be increased 10 times without any degradation in resolution. POCs HNL screens do not introduce any of the interference 'Moire' fringing that hinders the performance of lenticular screens. Additionally, the graded index properties of HNL screens eliminate all back-scattering losses, which in current scatterers are as high as 50 percent.

Head-up displays (HUD) have long been used to provide pilots of military combat aircraft with information essential for the accurate aiming of weapons. By making use of evolving technologies designers have, over the years, increased the usefulness of these displays. The most modern examples of this type of display are now capable of displaying simultaneously large amounts of information including weapons release information, primary flying references, and images from sensors. The HUD is now accepted as a primary flight reference. Information and images are projected onto the combiner glass in a way that makes it unnecessary for the pilot to look away from the outside scene and re-focus on a head down display. HUDs are also viewable under all ambient lighting conditions. While the military has long used these displays, a growing number of commercial aviation managers have begun to consider the real benefits of adopting this technology. The availability of cheaper, lighter, smaller and more reliable HUDs would increase the potential market for these useful systems which can enhance safety during landing and take-off phases of flight. This paper explains the need and opportunities for the future improvement of HUDs by the insertion of advanced display technologies.

The Air Force KC-135, Navy P-3, and Army MH-60 aircraft are in the process of upgrading their electromechanical instruments with active matrix liquid crystal multifunction displays. These multifunction display products provide improved reliability and also provide added functionality to present multiple instruments, weather radar, and system status information. The flexibility of these systems also provides backup for flight critical instruments. This paper will present display performance aspects including luminance, chromaticity, contrast, display formats, the results of bench testing, and flight testing.

Four operator displays are being integrated into the US Navy multi-mission helicopter, SH-60R with a planned initial operating capability date of 2001. These active matrix liquid crystal displays (AMLCDs), one 10.4 inch display used in three locations in the cockpit, and one 16 inch display used in the cabin, have moved from development status to avionics lab integration and preliminary flight testing. This paper presents the general approach taken to develop, evaluated, integrate, and test the AMLCD displays in the avionics system.

This paper addresses the automotive and avionics application of cathode-ray (CRTs). Some discussion of the key attributes of displays is included. Examples of the different types of high information content displays are discussed. Automotive and avionics environments are briefly addressed. Typical CRTs and their subsystems are addressed as well as the demands that avionics environment and automotive environment contribute to a design/use trade-off analysis. The disadvantages and advantages of CRT technology in general are addressed as well as some example applications being offered in aviation and automotive vehicles.

DoD's armed services each have many uses for maps and charts. Paper products have long been sued for planning, navigation, and tactical situation assessment. As useful as paper products are, today's sailor, soldier, and airman are looking for digital maps and charts. Digital products bring a new dimension to tactical information systems. Today's workstation display systems do not offer the large format and high information content of traditional paper products. This paper describes a 30 inch diagonal, 80 color pixels/inch, display with an addressable resolution of 2048 by 1280 by 24, which could meet the needs of many DoD programs/users.

Battelle is under contract with Warner Robins Air Logistics Center to design a Common Large Area Display Set (CLADS) for use in multiple command, control, communications, computers, and intelligence applications that currently use 19-inch cathode ray tubes (CRTs). Battelle engineers have now demonstrated that the modular CLADS design is applicable to a large number of existing and future rugged workstation applications, and that the design is technology independent. Any display technology that can be packaged to meet the form, fit, and function requirements defined by the common large area display head assembly performance specification is a candidate for CLADS applications. This has already reduced the risk of CLADS development, permits life long technology insertion upgrades without unnecessary redesign, and addresses many of the obsolescence problems associated with COTS technology-based acquisition. For each platform, only the unique form and fit requirements are included in a CLADS application integration kit, while the unique functional interfaces are provided by an application video interface module. All other parts of the design are common to all CLADS installations and are therefore required in higher quantities which means lower costs. A performance specification tree lists the specifications for each of the platforms as well as the specifications for the modules used for each platform. Detailed specifications have been drafted and will be released to potential display integrators and manufacturers for review in the coming weeks. Initial USAF applications include replacements for the E-3 AWACS color monitor assembly, E-8 Joint STARS graphics display unit, and ABCCC airborne color display. Initial US Navy applications include the E-2C ACIS display. For these applications, reliability and maintainability are key objectives. The common design will reduce the cost of operation and maintenance by an estimated 3.3 million dollars per year on E-3 AWACS alone. As more platforms use CLADS, the life cycle cost savings across the armed forces increases dramatically.

Battelle is under contract with Warner Robins Air Logistics Center to design a common large area display set (CLADS) for use in multiple airborne command, control, communications, computers and intelligence applications that currently use unique 19 inch cathode ray tubes (CRTs). The CLADS is a modular design, with common modules used wherever possible. Each CLADS includes an application-specific integration kit, which incorporates all of the unique interface components. Since there is no existing digital video interface standard for high resolution workstations, a standard interface was developed for CLADS and documented as an interface specification.One of the application-specific modules, the application video interface module (AVIM), readily incorporates most of the required application electrical interfaces for a given system into a single module. The analog AVIM, however, poses unique design problems when folding multiple application interface requirements into a single common AVIM for the most prevalent workstation display interface: analog RGB video. Future workstation display interfaces will incorporate fully digital video between the graphics hardware and the digital display device. A digital AVIM is described which utilizes a fiber channel interface to deliver high speed 1280 by 1024, 24- bit, 60 Hz digital video from a PCI graphics card to the CLADS. A video recording and playback device is described, as well as other common CLADS modules, including the display controller and power supply. This paper will discuss both the analog and digital AVIM interfaces, application BIT and power interfaces, as well as CLADS internal interfaces.

3D threat projection has been shown to decrease the human recognition time for events, especially for a jet fighter pilot or C4I sensor operator when the advantage of realization that a hostile threat condition exists is the basis of survival. Decreased threat recognition time improves the survival rate and results from more effective presentation techniques, including the visual cue of true 3D (T3D) display. The concept of 'font' describes the approach adopted here, but whereas a 2D font comprises pixel bitmaps, a T3D font herein comprises a set of hologram bitmaps. The T3D font bitmaps are pre-computed, stored, and retrieved as needed to build images comprising symbols and/or characters. Human performance improvement, hologram generation for a T3D symbol font, projection requirements, and potential hardware implementation schemes are described. The goal is to employ computer-generated holography to create T3D depictions of a dynamic threat environments using fieldable hardware.

Combining the technologies of holography with the advances in computing, semiconductors, optics and display devices has established the ability to create and display electronic holograms. These electronic holograms produce volumetric images projected into the room, not on or in a flat screen. An all electronic, portable system for producing these volumetric images has been demonstrated. Additionally, software to convert 3D images displayed on a flat screen into volumetric holograms has been demonstrated.

A 3D volumetric display system utilizing a rotating helical surface is described. The rotating helix system permits images to b e displayed in a 3D format that can be observed without the use of special glasses. Its rotating helical screen sweeps out a cylindrical envelope, providing a volumetric display medium through which scanned laser pulses are projected. The light scatters from the surface of the helix so that each voxel appears to emanate from specific points in space. Each point has x-y-coordinates determined by the laser scanner and a z-coordinate determined by the intersection of the laser beam and the helix surface. Display images are created by synchronizing the interaction of the laser pulses and the moving screen to address a full 3D volume that gives the viewer true depth cues without the need for any special viewing aids. We describe recent work on the development of mechanical, optical, electronic, and software engineering for a display system based on a 36-inch diameter helix using high speed, multichannel, random access laser scanners. Color images are created using red, green and blue laser sources. The system is capable of displaying 800,000 voxels per second, per color. A portable, 12-inch diameter, translucent helix system is also presented.

Joint Vision 2010 is the conceptual template for how the US DoD will leverage technological opportunities to achieve new levels of effectiveness in joint warfighting. Battlefield digitization is a key component of this vision. In the Crewman's Associate Advanced Technology Demonstration, crewstations for ground combat vehicles were developed that allow the soldier to use digitization to maximize weapon system performance. Requirements for ground combat vehicle displays that will be used on digitized battlefield can be derived from these crewstations.

The following paper presents a summary of flight demonstration results on dichroic liquid crystal displays (LCDs) subjected to over one year field use in harsh continental US fielded conditions. The LCD modules were subjected to actual solar loading to test for UV and mechanical damage that resulted in void formation in the liquid crystal. White spots or gas bubbles that appeared as white areas in the black background of a dichroic liquid crystal display were observed. This presentation is based on the original presentation of Electronic Liquid Crystal Display Environments and Military Applications for SPIE AeroSense '95, Cockpit Displays session. Conclusions form 1995 will be briefly reviewed and compared to results of fielded units as well as the results of the laboratory testing on samples utilizing LCD technologies. The time frame for the field demonstration data will include up to the date of the paper submission and will cover a minimum of 14 months of field use. The original concerns of the end user and the major results of the analysis of the dichroic LCDs after voids were found in less than one year of original deployment will be reviewed. The field demonstration took place in the weapons system that showed the highest incident of voids over that deployment period, and second weapon system under identical field use. Data was collected on equal numbers of units of original configuration and improved configuration LCD modules in weapons system deployment in the southwestern US.

This paper addresses flat panel display test and evaluation via a discussion of procedures, standards and facilities. Procedures need to be carefully developed and documented to ensure that test accomplished in separate laboratories produce comparable results. The tests themselves must not be a source of inconsistency in test results when such comparisons are made in the course of procurements or new technology prototype evaluations. Standards are necessary to expedite the transition of the new display technologies into applications and to lower the costs of custom parts applied across disparate applications. The flat panel display industry is in the course of ascertaining and formulating such standards as they are of value to designers, manufacturers, marketers and users of civil and military products and equipment. Additionally, in order to inform the DoD and industry, the test and evaluation facilities of the Air Force Research Laboratory Displays Branch are described. These facilities are available to support procurements involving flat panel displays and to examine new technology prototypes. Finally, other government display testing facilities within the Navy and the Army are described.

The US Display Consortium (USDC) selected SAIC to establish a manufacturing operation for LCD backlights to foster the growth of the US LCD industry. The development agreement requires SAIC and the USDC to cost share the 4.3 million dollar effort which will result into a manufacturing capability to produce 12,000 backlight assemblies a year. The backlight assemblies have a range of sizes to match the LCD sizes - from 4 inches by 4 inches to 10 inches by 12.5 inches. The units are projected to support the demanding military display requirements and also have a lower cost, lower performance version to meet industrial display requirements where sunlight readability and rugged features are important. The units are not projected to compete with the simple, edge lit backlights in commercial, lap-top computers. The production capability is planned to be in place in early 1997.

The polyplanar optical display (POD) is a unique display screen which can be use with any projection source. This display screen is 2 inches thick and has a matte black face which allows for high contrast images. The prototype being developed is a form, fit and functional replacement display for the B-52 aircraft which uses a monochrome ten-inch display. The new display uses a 100 milliwatt green solid state laser as its optical source. In order to produce real- time video, the laser light is being modulated by a digital light processing (DLP) chip manufactured by Texas Instruments, Inc. A variable astigmatic focusing system is used to produce a stigmatic image on the viewing face of the POD. In addition to the optical design, we discuss the electronic interfacing to the DLP chip, the opto-mechanical design and viewing angle characteristics.

Physical Optics Corporation has developed an autostereoscopic 3D display system that does not require viewers to wear goggles. This system is based on a stationary holographic projection diffuser fabricated using volume multiphase holographic optical elements. Design and development of the prototype are also described.

This paper addresses the number, function and size of primary military displays and establishes a basis to determine the opportunities for technology insertion in the immediate future and into the next millennium. The military displays market is specified by such parameters as active area and footprint size, and other characteristics such as luminance, gray scale, resolution, color capability and night vision imaging system capability. A select grouping of funded, future acquisitions, planned and predicted cockpit kits, and form-fit-function upgrades are taken into account. It is the intent of this paper to provide an overview of the DoD niche market, allowing both government and industry a timely reference to insure meeting DoD requirements for flat-panel displays on schedule and in a cost-effective manner. The aggregate DoD market for direct view displays is presently estimated to be in excess of 157,000. Helmet/head mounted displays will add substantially to this total. The vanishing vendor syndrome for older display technologies is becoming a growing, pervasive problem throughout DoD, which consequently just leverage the more modern display technologies being developed for civil-commercial markets.

Command Icontrol applications require bright large size images and liquid crystal light valve ( LCLV ) projectors seem to be the best choice. Several types of light valve technologies have been developed to realize high efficiency, high resolution, and high brightness TV- and data-projectors Ill. Both three-light-valve- and single-light-valvesystems with transmissive and reflective light valves addressing in different ways were investigated. At present, the transmissive aclive matrix TN LCD technology is the mainstream technology but improvement of the effective aperture ratio ( AR ) is still a problem to solve. Reflective light valves have the advantage of higher AR and are remaining a subject of constant interest.

Authors are discussing recent achievements in new generation of e-beam pumped semiconductor lasers for large area high brightness projection systems. Very high output parameters have been obtained. 5-6 gray scales can be provided. Light emission power in continuous operation mode up till 5 W for blue, 10 W for green and yellow, and 15 W for red spectral regions were achieved in experimental projection system. It is shown that combined RGY-flux as high as 13000 Lm at efficiency of 6 Lm/W can be obtained.

AMLCD's are currently the flat panel technology of choice for military systems and civil transport avionic applications, both new and retrofit. Historically, military and avionic displays have ben custom designed and have generally been specific to each application. Two recent developments have given display system designers a choice between a custom military/avionic solution or a ruggedized commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) implementation. The first development is the widespread availability of various consumer and automotive AMLCD panels at low prices. The second is the change in the policy of defense departments, notably the US Department of Defense, to procure COTS components instead of developing custom solutions. This paper assesses and analyzes the key differences in characteristics, performance and logistical supportability of military and avionic AMLCD's and presents the tradeoffs involved in making the optimum choice between custom and COTS.

This paper studies the transfer of information in pixelated display systems when there is a resolution mismatch between the input sensor video and the sampled displays, with the display having lower resolution than the input video. This scenario is increasingly likely to occur in military aircraft where the design and upgrade cycles of the sensors do not necessarily track the corresponding cycles for the displays. The major question discussed here is whether information that is critical to the successful operation of the aircraft can be preserved. In past work, the authors have derived the modulation transfer function for sampled- data displays and applied it to study the image quality and resolution of AMLCD cockpit displays. This analysis, like traditional MTF analysis for CRT systems, focused on the sine-wave modulation of the system. Such analysis shows the loss of information in the form of the sinusoidal components between the display and sensor Nyquist limits. In this paper, we show that even in such cases, the information of most interest to military users, namely the presence of single pixel point targets or single-pixel wide line targets, can be significantly preserved with the use of appropriate digital filtering.

Laser Power Corporation has developed a new type of projection display, based upon microlaser technology and a novel scan architecture, which provides the foundation for bright, extremely high resolution images. A review of projection technologies is presented along with the limitations of each and the difficulties they experience in trying to generate high resolution imagery. The design of the microlaser based projector is discussed along with the advantage of this technology. High power red, green, and blue microlasers have been designed and developed specifically for use in projection displays. These sources, in combination with high resolution, high contrast modulator, produce a 24 bit color gamut, capable of supporting the full range of real world colors. The new scan architecture, which reduces the modulation rate and scan speeds required, is described. This scan architecture, along with the inherent brightness of the laser provides the fundamentals necessary to produce a 5120 by 4096 resolution display. The brightness and color uniformity of the display is excellent, allowing for tiling of the displays with far fewer artifacts than those in a traditionally tiled display. Applications for the display include simulators, command and control centers, and electronic cinema.

Military requirements-driven design combined synergistically with extensive leverage of commercial off-the-shelf technology. The process yielded an affordable, ruggedized, 21 inch military airborne color display that can easily be applied to other applications. The monitor provides a high- resolution 1280 by 1024 display with very wide viewing angles and meets various MIL-STD-810 environmental and stress requirements. The display uses a single 1280 by 1024 digital micromirror device (DMD) as a reflective image source. DMDs can be used to build high-resolution, lightweight, high luminance, large or compact display systems for military applications. The commercial availability of the underlying display technology will provide substantial cost leverage to the defense community. This paper describes the design constraints, performance, design, and status of the project.

Flat panel display (FPD) technologies have emerged with smaller depth, size, and power than the cathode ray tube (CRT) technology that now dominates the direct view display market. Liquid crystal displays (LCD) in general and active matrix liquid crystal displays (AMLCD), in particular, are presently the FPD technology of choice. However, the FPD and CRT markets are dominated by Asian manufacturers. Any startup FPD technology, regardless of its advantages, will encounter much difficulty to displace such entrenched, mature, and dominating display technologies. However, increasing demand for FPDs may require entirely new technologies designed to serve the same end markets. Such a new entry could leapfrog the AMLCD in FPD market share as the overall market grows. During the past few years much activity has occurred in several new FPD technologies, including field emission display (FED), that promises many advantages over AMLCD. Some observers consider the FED entry as having leapfrog potential and major investments are being made to further its advancement.This paper examines the past, present, and future of the nascent FED technology to assess its successes as well as to support or refute the claim the FED will leapfrog AMLCD and/or establish its own niche within the overall display market. Also, past projected claims by FED manufacturers about future targeted markets and product availability are reviewed. This data is compared with what is currently available from other FPD technologies, including the recent work on high gain emissive displays and vacuum fluorescent displays.

This paper describes the system tradeoffs related to display type, resolution, and pixel structure, taking examples from the development of binary and grayscale high resolution AMLCDs. Performance is related to the match achieved between the human visual system, the display system and the task assigned. The active matrix liquid crystal display is compared to other technologies at the high acuity levels achieved in a 282 DPI monochrome grayscale and a 141 color groups per inch color grayscale AMLCD. The potential benefits to military aviators of very high resolution displays are outlined as well as the challenges to implement these systems.

Plasma display panels (PDPs) have become a major focus in the world's quest for the direct view, hang-on-the-wall panoramic flat panel display (FPD) monitor. There are more than a dozen large international companies scrambling to be in the picture with a reported world-wide investment to date of around 1 billion dollars over the last few years. In addition, world-wide investments are expected to be several billion dollars over the next five years. PDPs in the past have always held out the promise for large area, high definition applications except the high production costs for high definition video/graphics displays made them impractical for widespread use in industrial, professional, medical and consumer applications.In the present, full color PDPs are becoming affordable for consumer consideration, and the potential for low cost to meet the mass consumer product market is undeniable. Those joining the PDP quest recognize that this potential will be realized within the next five years, and are investing now to be in the big picture. All kinds of specialized and niche market applications which have used, or are now planning to insert PDPs, will directly benefit from the infrastructure and economies of scale that are coming about as a result of he commercial PDP development.

Backlight manufacturers provide product literature that furnish information about how bright their backlights are, with how little power they draw. There are enough variations in the application of luminance enhancement films which make it very difficult to compare backlights. The variation in light distribution angles of these films further complicates the system design when they do not match the viewing angle requirements of the target display. Measurements made with an integrating sphere and a photometer can be used to compare backlights directly. This paper provides data based on these measurements and suggestions to better estimate backlight power requirements from the display's viewing angle specifications.

The International Space Station (ISSP) currently under development is equipped with robotic workstations to perform and provide information on the mobile servicing system robotic functions in use. The workstations include conventional and special developed hardware, software displays, and control software configurations. The robotic activities are critical to the ISSP during assembly and maintenance activities resulting in detailed crew interface requirements. Operational scenarios were used to develop the requirements of the ISSP Robotic activities resulting in the specification and configuration of the Mobile Servicing System Robotic Workstation.

Fluorescent lamps have proven to be well suited for use in high performance avionic backlight systems as demonstrated by numerous production applications for both commercial and military cockpit displays. Cockpit display applications include: Boeing 777, new 737s, F-15, F-16, F-18, F-22, C- 130, Navy P3, NASA Space Shuttle and many others. Fluorescent lamp based backlights provide high luminance, high lumen efficiency, precision chromaticity and long life for avionic active matrix liquid crystal display applications. Lamps have been produced in many sizes and shapes. Lamp diameters range from 2.6 mm to over 20 mm and lengths for the larger diameter lamps range to over one meter. Highly convoluted serpentine lamp configurations are common as are both hot and cold cathode electrode designs. This paper will review fluorescent lamp operating principles, discuss typical requirements for avionic grade lamps, compare avionic and laptop backlight designs and provide guidelines for the proper application of lamps and performance choices that must be made to attain optimum system performance considering high luminance output, system efficiency, dimming range and cost.

The US Navy is proactively upgrading its fleet of P-3 Maritime Patrol Aircraft to continue to meet current and near future challenges to national security. The traditional P-3 role of anti-submarine warfare, though retained, is being expanded to include anti-surface warfare, increased reconnaissance and surveillance, and other missions. As part of the overall improvement program, P-3 cockpit and tactical crewstations throughout the aircraft are being upgraded to improve crew performance. Flat panel display technology is replacing CRTs in five on-going crewstation improvements. This paper reports on one of them: the replacement of CRT displays in a prototype EO/IR crewstation with a suite of four color AMLCDs, one of which is configured with a surface acoustic wave touch overlay to serve as a programmable touch interface. This upgrade is already in service with the fleet.

In a conventional liquid crystal display device (LCD), glass substrates coated with an indium tin oxide layer are typically used for the application of an electric field to the liquid crystal material. For many applications including cockpit and avionic display applications, there is a need for a LCD with plastic substrates. We have demonstrated for the first time the operation of a fully multiplexed plastic LCD using conducting polymers as the substrates and the newly developed reflective cholesteric display technology. The resultant display has several features like light weight, low power consumption, increased ruggedness, bistability, sunlight readability and flicker-free operation. The functioning of the conducting polymer-based LCD is demonstrated and the features that make it attractive for cockpit applications are discussed.

The development of compact high resolution display sources, high output light sources, and the continued miniaturization of electronics has facilitated development of portable, self contained full color electronic projection systems. These systems typically can display high resolution PC based graphics as well a video information with high image quality and luminance. The commercial market place is continuing to drive display resolution and luminance up while demanding decreased projector size, weight and costs. This paper, focusing on portable electronic projection systems, describes the systems and display technologies currently available, provides an overview of system architecture and components, discusses the current commercial electronic projection marketplace and trends, and briefly highlights some potential military uses for these new systems.

The field emission display (FED) delivers all the advantages of the cathode ray tube (CRT) without the disadvantages. The FED presents the viewer with an unrestricted viewing angle, full-motion video bandwidth, wide operating (-54°C to +95°C) and storage (-62°C to +115°C) temperatures, and "instant on" anywhere in the operating temperature range. The FED does not have the CRT disadvantages of center to edge spot size variations, astigmatism, geometrical position errors, linear distortion, and misconvergence. Additional FED advantages include shallow package depth, fewer process steps than AMLCD, potential lower cost than AMLCD, 1000 times less peak anode current per pixel (FED turns on one row at a time) and inherent shock and vibration resistance provided by low mass internal elements. (See Figure 1 - Field Emission Display is a Flat CRT) Raytheon CRT products are currently installed in high performance military and commercial systems. These platforms include fixed wing aircraft: F-14, F-15, F-16, F/A-18, S-3A, B-1B, JAS-39, Tornado, EF-1 1 1 and B-52; rotary wing vehicles as Apache AH-64D and EH-1O1; shipboard applications SPA-25G and CCS-MKII Los Angeles class submarine fire control system; world-wide air traffic control programs as Canadian RAMP, OIDT, and in some of the other nineteen countries installing Raytheon air traffic control products. FED high power screen efficiency in a monochrome display can exceed 25 lumens per watt and 1 5 lumens per watt in full color applications. Average power dissipation is determined by the higher duty cycle of video content. The 8KV anode of the Raytheon FED yields the highest brightness of any flat panel display at 300 IL to 400 fL after 10% contrast filtering in a 10,000 fc ambient environment. "Instant on" full brightness is achieved within five seconds within the -54°C to +95°C operating range without heaters, ITO layers, anti-freeze or preheating or pre-cooling. The FED full viewing angle of 1600 x 1600 is usable in portrait or landscape mode. Display electronics adjust from full brightness down to 0.01 fL for night vision (NI/IS) equipment. Gray scale levels of 0 to 256 shades of gray are provided by 8-BIT drivers operated through a pulse width modulation scheme allowing peak anode current to be large enough to remain in the linear portion of the transfer function. Full motion video speed results from phosphors which span the entire decay envelope of <0. 1 msec for extremely fast flying spot scanners to long persistence <50 msec for PPI radar. True TV colors in any gamut, hue, saturation or Snell diagram location are available from conventional phosphors or mixtures. FED aging is the result of a gradual reduction in phosphor efficiency. Each pixel is served by approximately 400 microtips. Random failures of as many as 10% of the microtips is undetectable to the eye. The focus assembly provides electron beam focusing and high voltage arc suppression, shunting intercepted arcs from the anode to ground to prevent cathode damage. The inherent simplicity and robustness of the FED design demands only small construction differences between commercial and military designs. (See Figure 2 - Raytheon's 4 Inch Square Field Emission Display) An exploded view of the four inch square FED monitor is shown in Figure 2. The base and the housing bolt together to enclose the FED. The contrast enhancement filter is optically bonded to the front glass anode panel with an index matching epoxy.