This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 7166, including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, Introduction (if any), and the Conference Committee listing.

Fourier transform infrared imaging (FTIR) and Raman Microspectroscopy are powerful tools for characterizing the distribution of different chemical moieties in heterogeneous materials. FTIR and Raman measurements have been adapted to assess the maturity of the mineral and the quality of the organic component (collagen and non-collagenous proteins) of the mineralized tissue in bone. Unique to the FTIRI analysis is the capability to provide the spatial distribution of two of the major collagen cross-links (pyridinoline, and dehydro-dihydroxylysinonorleucine) and through the study of normal and diseased bone, relate them to bone strength. These FTIR parameters have been validated based on analysis of model compounds. It is widely accepted that bone strength is determined by bone mass and bone quality. The latter is a multifactorial term encompassing the material and structural properties of bone, and one important aspect of the bone material properties is the organic matrix. The bone material properties can be defined by parameters of mineral and collagen, as determined by FTIR and Raman analysis. Considerably less attention has been directed at collagen, although there are several publications in the literature reporting altered collagen properties associated with fragile bone, in both animals and humans. Since bone is a heterogeneous tissue due to the remodeling process, microscopic areas may be carefully selected based on quantitative Backscattered Electron Imaging or histological staining, thus ensuring comparison of areas with similar metabolic activity and mineral content. In conclusion, FTIRI and Raman vibrational spectroscopy are proving to be powerful tools in bone-related medical research.

Light-scattering spectroscopy has the potential to provide information about bone composition via a fiber-optic probe placed on the skin. In order to design efficient probes, one must understand the effect of all tissue layers on photon transport. To quantitatively understand the effect of overlying tissue layers on the detected bone Raman signal, a layered Monte Carlo model was modified for Raman scattering. The model incorporated the absorption and scattering properties of three overlying tissue layers (dermis, subdermis, muscle), as well as the underlying bone tissue. The attenuation of the collected bone Raman signal, predominantly due to elastic light scattering in the overlying tissue layers, affected the carbonate/phosphate (C/P) ratio by increasing the standard deviation of the computational result. Furthermore, the mean C/P ratio varied when the relative thicknesses of the layers were varied and the elastic scattering coefficient at the Raman scattering wavelength of carbonate was modeled to be different from that at the Raman scattering wavelength of phosphate. These results represent the first portion of a computational study designed to predict optimal probe geometry and help to analyze detected signal for Raman scattering experiments involving bone.

Raman spectroscopy of bone is complicated by fluorescence background and spectral contributions from other tissues. Full utilization of Raman spectroscopy in bone studies requires rapid and accurate calibration and preprocessing methods. We have taken a step-wise approach to optimize and automate calibrations, preprocessing and background correction. Improvements to manual spike removal, white light correction, software image rotation and slit image curvature correction are described. Our approach is concisely described with a minimum of mathematical detail.

There is a relatively deep understanding of macro and meso scale failure processes taking place in bone. Bone has multiple orders of structural hierarchy and damage has to evolve through molecular, supramolecular and micron scales before giving forth to fractures. Raman spectroscopy is known to be an efficient technique to provide information on the failure processes at these scales. We used Raman microspectroscopy to assess the deformation of bone at the supramolecular level and Digital Image Correlation (DIC) was applied to relate local strains to observed shifts in the wavenumber of phosphate symmetric stretch band. DIC analysis of notched samples loaded in tension showed the presence of compressive as well as tensile residual strains. Tensile strain however, was more predominant near the notch. Raman analysis corroborated DIC observations such that the majority of the samples displayed negative shifts in mineral band indicating tensile deformations. The results support Raman based observation of deformations in bone and indicate that heterogeneity and anisotropy of bone complicate the expected stress patterns.

Astronauts exposed to spaceflight conditions can lose 1-2% of their bone mineral density per month from the weight-bearing portions of the skeletal system. Low bone mineral density, termed osteopenia, is the result of decreased bone formation and/or increased bone resorption. In this study, Raman spectroscopy is used to examine if the physicochemical composition of murine femurs is altered in response to simulated spaceflight conditions (hindlimb suspension). Female C57BL/6J mice, aged 53 days, were divided into ground control and simulated spaceflight groups for a period of 12 days, modeling the experiment profile of mice flown on Space Shuttle flight STS-108. After the study, the mice were sacrificed and femur specimens harvested. Mid-diaphysis sections were probed using near-infrared Raman microscopy. Spectra were collected at various anatomical sites (anterior, lateral, medial, and posterior quadrants) and/or cortical locations (periosteal, midosteal, and endosteal). Chemometric recovery of spectra was employed to reduce signal contributions from the epoxy embedding agent. Mean values for mineralization, carbonation, crystallinity, and other parameters associated with the matrix were estimated. Correlations between mineralization and carbonation were observed, despite the small absolute changes between the two groups. We present more detailed analysis of this data and comment on the prospects for Raman spectroscopic evaluation of bone quality in hindlimb suspended (HLS) specimens.

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) has been used to image equine bone samples. OCT and polarization sensitive OCT (PS-OCT) images of equine bone samples, before and after demineralization, are presented. Using a novel approach, taking a series of images at different angles of illumination, the polar angle and true birefringence of collagen within the tissue is determined, at one site in the sample. The images were taken before and after the bones were passed through a demineralization process. The images show an improvement in depth penetration after demineralization allowing better visualization of the internal structure of the bone and the optical orientation of the collagen. A quantitative measurement of true birefringence has been made of the bone; true birefringence was shown to be 1.9x10^-3 before demineralization increasing to 2.7x10^-3 after demineralization. However, determined collagen fiber orientation remains the same before and after demineralization. The study of bone is extensive within the field of tissue engineering where an understanding of the internal structures is essential. OCT in bone, and improved depth penetration through demineralization, offers a useful approach to bone analysis.

Modulated luminescence (LUM) technique was applied to analyze photophysical processes in the cortical layer of human skull bones. The theoretical interpretation of the results was based on the optical excitation and decay rate equations of the fluorophore and on the molecular interaction parameter with the photon field density in the matrix of the bone. Using comparisons of the theory with the frequency response of dental LUM it was concluded that the optically active molecular species (fluorophore) in the bones is hydroxyapatite. An effective relaxation lifetime of skull cortical bone was derived theoretically and was found to depend on the intrinsic fluorophore decay lifetime, on the photon field density, and on the thickness of the bone. The experimentally measured dependencies were in excellent agreement with the theoretical model. The theory was able to yield measurements of the optical scattering coefficient, optical absorption coefficient, and mean coupling coefficient. These results show that the quantitative LUM can be used as a sensitive method to measure optical properties of the active fluorophore in cortical skull bones and the optical-field-induced molecular interaction parameter. When calibrated vs. laser intensity, the modulated luminescence can also be used to measure human skull thickness. These traits can be applied to monitor the bone mineral density (BMD) and, ultimately can be used as potential markers of bone health or disease, such as osteoporosis or bone cancer.

Knocking out a gene in mice provide the means to investigate potential regulators of the compositional, structural, and biomechanical properties of bone. Suppressing genes related to matrix turnover (bone remodeling) can have a significant effect on properties related to overall bone quality, which are normally measured using tests such as micro-computed tomography (&mgr;-CT) and three point-bending to determine the structural and mechanical properties, respectively. Although Raman spectroscopy is known to non-destructively characterize biochemical properties of bone such as degree of mineralization and crystallinity, the correlation between these measurements and those of overall bone quality has not yet been systematically investigated. In this study we present a comparison of structural and mechanical properties of bone from mice deficient in matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2) to compositional properties measured with RS. Femora were collected from MMP2+/+ and MMP2-/- mice at 16 weeks of age. Multiple Raman spectra were collected from the mid-diaphysis of intact femora in order to measure the bone's average compositional properties. In addition, &mgr;-CT was used to characterize the structure and bone mineral density (BMD) at the mid-diaphysis, and three-point bending assessed the biomechanical properties of the same bones. Raman derived measurements of mineralization (ratio of Phosphate ν1 to CH2 bending), mineral crystallinity, collagen and mineral contents were significantly lower in the MMP null mice and demonstrated correlation with volumetric BMD, bending strength and modulus. In addition, all these measurements were shown to inversely correlate with post-yield-deflection (p<0.01). These results indicate the potential for RS to qualitatively assess bone quality.

A coupled diffuse-photon-density-wave and thermal-wave theoretical model was developed to describe the biothermophotonic phenomena in multi-layered hard tissue structures. Photothermal Radiometry was applied as a safe, non-destructive, and highly sensitive tool for the detection of early tooth enamel demineralization to test the theory. Extracted human tooth was treated sequentially with an artificial demineralization gel to simulate controlled mineral loss in the enamel. The experimental setup included a semiconductor laser (659 nm, 120 mW) as the source of the photothermal signal. Modulated laser light generated infrared blackbody radiation from teeth upon absorption and nonradiative energy conversion. The infrared flux emitted by the treated region of the tooth surface and sub-surface was monitored with an infrared detector, both before and after treatment. Frequency scans with a laser beam size of 3 mm were performed in order to guarantee one-dimensionality of the photothermal field. TMR images showed clear differences between sound and demineralized enamel, however this technique is destructive. Dental radiographs did not indicate any changes. The photothermal signal showed clear change even after 1 min of gel treatment. As a result of the fittings, thermal and optical properties of sound and demineralized enamel were obtained, which allowed for quantitative differentiation of healthy and non-healthy regions. In conclusion, the developed model was shown to be a promising tool for non-invasive quantitative analysis of early demineralization of hard tissues.

It is well established that the development of new technologies for early detection and quantitative monitoring of dental caries at its early stage could provide health and economic benefits ranging from timely preventive interventions to reduction of the time required for clinical trials of anti-caries agents. However, the new technologies currently used in clinical setting cannot assess and monitor caries using the actual mineral concentration within the lesion, while a laboratory-based microcomputed tomography (MCT) has been shown to possess this capability. Thus we envision the establishment of mathematical equations relating the measurements of each of the clinical technologies to that of MCT will enable the mineral concentration of lesions detected and assessed in clinical practice to be extrapolated from the equation, and this will facilitate preventitive care in dentistry to lower treatment cost. We utilize MCT and the two prominent clinical caries assessment devices (Quantitative Light-induced Fluorescence [QLF] and Diagnodent) to longitudinally monitor the development of caries in a continuous flow mixed-organisms biofilm model (artificial mouth), and then used the collected data to establish mathematical equation relating the measurements of each of the clinical technologies to that of MCT. A linear correlation was observed between the measurements of MicroCT and that of QLF and Diagnodent. Thus mineral density in a carious lesion detected and measured using QLF or Diagnodent can be extrapolated using the developed equation. This highlights the usefulness of MCT for monitoring the progress of an early caries being treated with therapeutic agents in clinical practice or trials.

We report the use of quantum dots (Qdots) as strain gages in the study of bone biomechanics using solid state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. We have developed solid state NMR sample cells for investigation of deformations of bone tissue components at loads up to several Mega Pascal. The size constraints of the NMR instrumentation limit the bone specimen diameter and length to be no greater than 2-3 mm and 30 mm respectively. Further, magic angle spinning (MAS) solid state NMR experiments require the use of non-metallic apparatus that can be rotated at kilohertz rates. These experimental constraints preclude the use of standard biomechanical measurement systems. In this paper we explore the use of quantum dot center of gravity measurement as a strain gage technology consistent with the constraints of solid state NMR. We use Qdots that bind calcium (625 nm emission) and collagen (705 nm emission) for measurement of strain in these components. Compressive loads are applied to a specimen in a cell through a fine pitch screw turned with a mini-torque wrench. Displacement is measured as changes in the positions of arrays of quantum dots on the surface of a specimen. Arrays are created by spotting the specimen with dilute suspensions of Qdots. Mineral labeling is achieved with 705 nm carboxylated dots and matrix labeling with 565 nm quantum dots conjugated to collagen I antibodies. After each load increment the new positions of the quantum dots are measured by fluorescence microscopy. Changes in Qdot center of gravity as a function of applied load can be measured with submicron accuracy.

To investigate the typical optical findings that can be used to characterize osteoarthritis, the distal interphalangeal finger joints from 40 subjects including 22 patients and 18 healthy controllers were examined clinically and scanned by a novel hybrid imaging system. The hybrid imaging platform integrated a C-arm based x-ray tomosynthetic system with a multi-channel optic-fiber based diffuse optical imaging system. Optical images were recovered qualitatively and quantitatively based on a regularization-based reconstruction algorithm that can incorporate the fine structural maps obtained from x-ray as a priori spatial information into diffuse optical tomography reconstruction procedures. Our findings suggest statistically significant differences between healthy and osteoarthritis finger joints. X-ray guided diffuse optical imaging may not only detect radiologic features supporting the development of an inflammatory disorder but may also help discriminate specific optical features that differ between osteoarthritic and healthy joints. These quantitative optical features are also potentially important for a better understanding of inflammatory arthritis in humans.

Non destructive analysis of hydroxyapatite materials is an active research area mainly in the study of dental pieces and bones due to the importance these pieces have in medicine, archeology, dentistry, forensics and anthropology. Infrared thermography and photothermal techniques constitute highly valuable tools in those cases. In this work the quantitative analysis of thermal diffusion in bones is presented. The results obtained using thermographic images are compared with the ones obtained from the photothermal radiometry. Special emphasis is done in the analysis of samples with previous thermal damage. Our results show that the treatments induce changes in the physical properties of the samples. These results could be useful in the identification of the agents that induced modifications of unknown origin in hydroxyapatite structures.

This work aims at characterizing how light propagates through bone in order to efficiently guide treatment of osteosarcoma with photodynamic therapy (PDT). Optical properties of various bone tissues need to be characterized in order to have a working model of light propagation in bone. Bone tissues of particular interest include cortical bone, red and yellow marrow, cancellous bone, and bone cancers themselves. With adequate knowledge of optical properties of osseous tissues, light dosimetry can determine how best to deliver adequate light to achieve phototoxic effects within bone. An optical fiber source-collector pair is used for diffuse reflectance spectroscopic measurements in order to determine the scattering and absorption properties of bone tissues. Native absorbers of interest at visible and near-IR wavelengths include water and oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin. A cylindrically symmetric Monte Carlo model is then used, incorporating these results, in order to predict and guide the delivery of light within bone in order to achieve the desired phototoxic effect in PDT.

We describe the use of Raman spectroscopy to investigate synovial fluid drops deposited onto fused silica microscope slides. This spectral information can be used to identify chemical changes in synovial fluid associated with osteoarthritis (OA) damage to knee joints. The chemical composition of synovial fluid is predominately proteins (enzymes, cytokines, or collagen fragments), glycosaminoglycans, and a mixture of minor components such as inorganic phosphate crystals. During osteoarthritis, the chemical, viscoelastic and biological properties of synovial fluid are altered. A pilot study was conducted to determine if Raman spectra of synovial fluid correlated with radiological scoring of knee joint damage. After informed consent, synovial fluid was drawn and x-rays were collected from the knee joints of 40 patients. Raman spectra and microscope images were obtained from the dried synovial fluid drops using a Raman microprobe and indicate a coarse separation of synovial fluid components. Individual protein signatures could not be identified; Raman spectra were useful as a general marker of overall protein content and secondary structure. Band intensity ratios used to describe protein and glycosaminoglycan structure were used in synovial fluid spectra. Band intensity ratios of Raman spectra indicate that there is less ordered protein secondary structure in synovial fluid from the damage group. Combination of drop deposition with Raman spectroscopy is a powerful approach to examining synovial fluid for the purposes of assessing osteoarthritis damage.

Our previous work has shown that near-infrared diffuse optical tomography has the potential to be a clinical tool in diagnosis of osteoarthritis. Here we report a study of 38 joints from 38 females, including 20 OA and 18 healthy joints. The quantitative results obtained show that there exists clear difference between OA and healthy joints in terms of the ratio of optical properties of the joint soft tissues to that of the associated bone. Statistic analysis of these clinical data is also presented.

The ultimate target of bone tissue engineering is to generate functional load bearing bone. By nature, the porous volume in the trabecular bone is occupied by osseous medulla. The natural bone matrix consists of hydroxyapatite (HA) crystals precipitated along the collagen type I fibres. The mineral phase renders bone strength while collagen provides flexibility. Without mineral component, bone is very flexible and can not bear loads, whereas it is brittle in the case of mineral phase without the collagen presence. In this study, we designed and prepared a new type of scaffold which mimics the features of natural bone. The scaffold consists of three different components, a biphasic polymeric base composed of two different biodegradable polymers prepared by using dual porogen approach and bioactive agents, i.e., collagen and HA particles which are distributed throughout the matrix only in the pore surfaces. Interaction of the bioactive scaffolds possessing very high porosity and interconnected pore structures with cells were investigated in a prolonged culture period by using an osteoblastic cell line. The mineral HA particles have a slight different refractive index from the other elements such as polymeric scaffolds and cell/matrix in a tissue engineering constructs, exhibiting brighter images in OCT. Thus, OCT renders a convenient means to assess the morphology and architecture of the blank biomimetic scaffolds. This study also takes a close observation of OCT images for the cultured cell-scaffold constructs in order to assess neo-formed minerals and matrix. The OCT assessments have been compared with the results from confocal and SEM analysis.