We discuss a hyperspectral darkfield microscopy technique capable of imaging single nanoparticles at biologically compatible (<0.5 W/cm²) illumination conditions. The microscope was tested on an array of lithographically produced gold nanorod antennas and on colloidal gold nanorods deposited on a glass substrate. As a test for in-vitro imaging capabilities, we studied the uptake of gold nanorods by DC2.4 dendritic cells.

A bimodular genetic fusion comprising a delivery module (scFv) and a capture module (SNAP) is proposed as a novel strategy for the biologically mediated site-specific covalent conjugation of targeting proteins to nanoparticles. ScFv800E6, an scFv mutant selective for HER2 antigen overexpressed in breast cancer cells was chosen as targeting ligand. The fusion protein SNAP-scFv was irreversibly immobilized on magnetofluorescent nanoparticles through the recognition between SNAP module and pegylated O₆-alkylguanine derivative. The targeting efficiency of the resulting nanoparticle against HER2-positive breast cancer cells was assessed by flow cytometry and immunofluorescence.

Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) is a popular method in bio-analytical chemistry and a potentially powerful enabling technology for in vitro diagnostics. SERS combines the excellent chemical specificity of Raman spectroscopy with the good sensitivity provided by enhancement of the signal that is observed when a molecule is located on (or very close to) the surface of nanostructured metallic materials. Star-like gold nanoparticles (SGN) are a new class of multibranched nanoparticles that in the last few years have attracted the attention of SERS community for their plasmonic properties. In this work we present a new method to prepare star-like gold nanoparticles with a simple one step protocol at room temperature using hydroquinone as reducing agent. Besides we compare the enhancement of Raman signal of malachite green, a dye commonly employed as label in biological studies, by star-like gold nanoparticles having different size, directly in liquid. This study shows that SGN provide good enhancement of Raman signal and that the effect of their dimension is strongly dependent on the wavelength used. Moreover preliminary results suggest that SGN produced using this method are characterized by good physical-chemical properties and they can be functionalized using the standard thiol chemistry. Overall, these results suggest that star-like gold nanoparticles produced through this method could be used for the further development of highly specific and sensitive SERS-based bio-analytical tests.

We present a quasi-static model of the electromagnetic interaction between dipolar emitting molecule and a Plasmon-metal nano-sphere. Based on the image theory of dielectric sphere, we model the Plasmon nano-spheres by off-centered dipole images. The retardation effect is taken into account by electrodynamical modifications on spherical polarizability and dipole radiation field. The modifications of the radiative rate, total decay rate and the quantum yield for the molecules are derived. The image model indicates the strong distance dependence of the enhancement on both radiative and total decay rates. The comparison with the exact electrodynamical model and other simplified models indicate that the off-center image provide accurate predictions on radiative and total decay rates, even in close distances.

The dynamic concentration range is one of the major limitations of single-molecule fluorescence techniques. Here, we show how bottom-up nano-antennas enhance the fluorescence intensity in a reduced hot-spot, ready for biological applications. We use self-assembled DNA origami structures as a breadboard where gold nanoparticle dimers are positioned with nanometer precision. A maximum of almost 100fold intensity enhancement is obtained using 100 nm gold nanoparticles within a gap of 23 nm between the particles. The results obtained are in good agreement with numerical simulations. Due to the intensity enhancement introduced by the nano-antenna, we are able to perform single molecule measurements at concentrations as high as 500 nM which represents an increment of 2 orders of magnitude compared to conventional measurements. The combination of metallic nanoparticles with DNA origami structures with docking points for biological assays paves the way for the development of bottom-up inexpensive enhancement chambers for single molecule measurements at high concentrations where processes like DNA sequencing occur.

We describe the growth and characterization of a set of gold and silver nanoparticles (NPs) as well as fluorescent nanoclusters (NCs) using one-step reduction (in aqueous phase) of Au and Ag precursors in the presence of modular bifunctional ligands. These ligands are made of bidentate (lipoic acid) anchoring groups appended with poly(ethylene glycol) segment, LA-PEG. The particle size can be easily controlled by varying the metal-to-ligand molar ratio during growth. We found that while high metal-to-ligand molar ratios promote the formation of NPs, small size and highly fluorescent NCs are exclusively formed when molar excesses of ligands are used. Both sets of NCs emit in the red to near infrared (NIR) region of the optical spectrum, though the exact location of the emission depends on the material used. The growth strategy further permitted the in-situ functionalization of the NCs with reactive groups (e.g., carboxylic acid or amine), which opens up the opportunity to conjugate these materials to biomolecules using simple to implement coupling chemistries.

Au nanostructures that exhibit strong localized surface plasmon resonance (SPR) have excellent potential for photo-medicine, among a host of other applications. Here, we report the synthesis and use of colloidal gold nanorings (GNRs) with potential for enhanced photodynamic therapy of cancer. The GNRs were fabricated via galvanic replacement reaction of sacrificial Co nanoparticles in gold salt solution with low molecular weight (Mw = 2,500) poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP) as a stabilizing agent. The size and the opening of the GNRs were controlled by the size of the starting Co particles and the concentration of the gold salt. UV-Vis absorption measurements indicated the tunability of the SPR of the GNRs from 560 nm to 780 nm. MTT assay showed that GNRs were non-toxic and biocompatible when incubated with breast cancer cells as well as the healthy counterpart cells. GNRs conjugated with 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) photosensitizer precursor led to elevated formation of reactive oxygen species and improved efficacy of photodynamic therapy of breast cancer cells under light irradiation compared to 5-ALA alone. These results can be attributed to significantly enhance localized electromagnetic field of the GNRs.

Plasmonic nanostructures promise to provide sensing capabilities with the potential for sensitive and robust assays in a high parallelization. We present here the use of individual nanostructures for the detection and manipulation of biomolecules such as DNA based on optical approaches [1]. The change in localized surface plasmon resonance of individual metal nanoparticles is utilized to monitor the binding of DNA directly or via DNA-DNA interaction. The influence of different size (length) as well as position (distance to the particle surface) is thereby studied [2]. Holes in a Cr layer present another interesting approach for bioanalytics. They are used to detect plasmonic nanoparticles as labels or to sense the binding of DNA on these particles. This hybrid system of hole and particle allows for simple (just using RGB-signals of a CCD [3]) but a highly sensitive (one nanoparticle sensitivity) detection. On the other hand, the binding of molecular layers around the particles can be detected using spectroscopic features of just an individual one of these systems. Besides sensing, individual plasmonic nanostructures can be also used to manipulate single biomolecular structures such as DNA. Attached particles can be used for local destruction [4] or cutting as well as coupling of energy into (and guiding along) the molecular structure [5].

The present work describes the use of a recently established multiparametric methodology to study nanomaterial toxicity. Using optimized methods, including proliferation-restricted cell types and endosomal buffer systems, the effect of different types of nanomaterials on cultured cells were studied, focusing in particular on intracellular particle degradation. Gold particles were quite resistant, whereas iron oxide degraded, with loss of magnetic resonance contrast, but little toxicity associated. Quantum dots degraded more slowly, decreasing both fluorescence quantum yield and cell viability over long-time periods. The multiparametric methodology is shown to be an efficient screening strategy, allowing easy comparison of results obtained for different nanomaterials and hereby helping to optimize nanoparticle design with improved safety.

Various techniques have been used for preparation of gelatin nanoparticles, such as coacervation, emulsion/solvent evaporation, reverse phase preparation, inverse miniemulsion and two step desolvation. Both methods are based on different mechanisms of nanoparticle formation. The main goal of this study was to systematically compare the performance of nanoprecipitation and the most widely utilized two step desolvation methods with respect to effect of gelatin concentration on nanoparticle size and polydispersity index. Particles size was determined by dynamic light scattering, and the morphology by atomic force microscopy. It was observed that gelatin concentration 20 mg/ml yielded nanoparticles of around 60 nm size by two step desolvation, on the other hand nanoprecipitation produced 210 nm particles with the same gelatin concentration.

ZnO nanoparticles are notoriously difficult to use as optical probes due to the energy required for excitation. Nonlinear properties give a way around the high energy necessary for excitation. By using second harmonic generation, SHG, and multiphoton excitation, MPE, it is possible to use NIR light to generate intense coherent light that does not lead to heating of the cell or noncoherent light that also leads to sudden heating of the cell and cell destruction.

While upconverting lanthanide nanoparticles have numerous advantages over other exogenous contrast agents used in scanned multiphoton imaging, their long luminescence lifetimes cause images collected with non-descanned detection to be greatly blurred. We demonstrate herein the use of Richardson-Lucy deconvolution to deblur luminescence images obtained via multiphoton scanning microscopy. Images were taken of three dimensional models of colon and ovarian cancer following incubation with NaYF₄:Yb,Er nanoparticles functionalized with an antibody for EGFR and folic acid respectively. Following deconvolution, images had a lateral resolution on par with the optimal performance of the imaging system used, ~1.2 μm, and an axial resolution of ~5 μm. Due to the relatively high multiphoton excitation efficiency of these nanoparticles, it is possible to follow binding of individual particles in tissue. In addition, their extreme photostability allows for prolonged imaging without significant loss in luminescence signal. With these advantageous properties in mind, we also discuss the potential application of upconverting lanthanide nanoparticles for tracking of specific, cancer relevant receptors in tissue.

Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) is an emerging imaging technique that can indicate environmental factors such as pH and redox potential by the effect of these factors on the fluorescence lifetimes of fluorophores. Semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) are highly sensitive to environment and so are ideal for use in FLIM, although certain experimental parameters must be carefully considered for QD imaging to account for their long lifetimes and two-photon behavior. We image the uptake of three types of QDs in cultured fibroblasts and show some preliminary results on the effects of endosomes and lysosomes on QD lifetimes. These results indicate the feasibility of FLIM for studies using QDs in live cells.

The use of microfluidic devices for the handling and analysis of suspensions of colloidal gold particles is presented. The plasmonic particles are detected via their resonant light scattering (RLS) in a simple and versatile LED-based dark field illumination geometry. RLS enables both microscopic imaging and microspectroscopy. The measurement of the diffusion coefficient of nanoparticles in this type of devices is demonstrated. Nanoparticles are separated from small (free ligand) molecules in a continuous flow process. Reversible aggregation of functionalized particles is detected in microflow by means of RLS, which opens perspectives for the development of microfluidic bioplasmonic detection schemes.

Rare-earth doped upconversion nanocrystals are emerging as the next-generation luminescent biomaterials. Here we load NaYF₄: Yb/Er and N_aYF₄: Yb/Tm upconversion nanocrystals into a soft-glass suspended-core optical fiber dip sensor, allowing sensitive measurements and power-dependent characterizations to be performed. This, in combination with negligible background autofluorescence from the glass fiber when using infrared excitation has provided a significant improvement in terms of sensitivity over what has previously been demonstrated using an optical fiber dip sensor. For detection we employ suspended-core optical fibers, which have found extensive use in sensing applications. These combine the high evanescent overlap comparable to that of a nanowire, with the robust handling characteristics and long interaction length of a conventional fiber. The fiber sensor platform allows measurements to be performed using minimal sample volumes (<20 nL) while still maintaining the sensitivity of the platform.

Raman spectroscopy is a very useful tool for analysing compounds, however its ability to detect low concentrations of a substance are very limited. Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) overcomes that issue and is reported to have achieved single molecule detection. Its main shortcoming is the reproducibility of SERS spectra. The variation in signal strength prevents SERS from being usable as a quantitative analytical technique. This variability have been investigated in this work and key factors in improving reproducibility have been considered. Pterins, such as xanthopterin are studied in this paper. Pterins are a group of biological compounds that are found in nature in colour pigmentation and in mammal’s metabolic pathways. Moreover, they have been identified in abnormal concentrations in the urine of people suffering from certain kinds of cancer. The potential for pterin’s use as a cancer diagnostic points to the importance of SERS detection for pterins.

Magnetic and superparamagnetic colloids represent a versatile platform for the design of functional nanostructures which may act as effective tools for biomedicine, being active in cancer therapy, tissue imaging and magnetic separation. The structural, morphological and hence magnetic features of the magnetic nanoparticles must be tuned for optimal perfomance in a given application. In this work, iron oxide nanocrystals have been prepared as prospective heat mediators in magnetic fluid hyperthermia therapy. A procedure based on the partial oxidation of iron (II) precursors in water based media has been adopted and the synthesis outcome has been investigated by X-Ray diffraction and Transmission electron microscopy. It was found that by adjusting the synthetic parameters (mainly the oxidation rate) magnetic iron oxide nanocrystals with cubic and cuboctahedral shape and average size 50 nm were obtained. The nanocrystals were tested as hyperthermic mediators through Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) measurements. The samples act as heat mediators, being able to increase the temperature from physiological temperature to the temperatures used for magnetic hyperthermia by short exposure to an alternative magnetic field and exhibit a reproducible temperature kinetic behavior.

Biocompatible nanoparticles have recently attracted significant attention due to increasing interest in their use for biological sensing, cellular labeling and in vivo imaging. Semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) with good colloidal stability as well as small hydrodynamic sizes are particularly useful within these applications. We have developed a series of dihydrolipoic acid (DHLA) based surface ligands to enhance the colloidal stability and biocompatibility of water soluble QDs. Modification of DHLA with poly(ethylene glycol) derivatives provided the QDs with extended colloidal stability over a wide pH range and under high salt concentrations, which contrasts with the limited colloidal stability provided by DHLA alone. Functionalization of the PEG termini enabled one to have easy access to the QD surface and construct a variety of stable QD-biomolecules conjugates. A series of DHLA-based compact ligands with zwitterionic character has also been explored to develop compact sized QDs without sacrificing the colloidal stability. Despite their smaller sizes than the PEG analogs, the QDs coated with the zwitterionic ligands still have excellent colloidal stability and minimize nonspecific interactions in biological environments. Recent studies of thiol-based multidentate ligands and ligand exchange methods further improved the colloidal stability and fluorescence quantum yields.

Lanthanide nanocrystals have demonstrated strong potentials in nanomedicine due to its up-conversion and strong magnetic properties, and low toxicity. This talk will focus on strategies in lanthanide nanostructure tailoring to achieve up-conversion color emission tuning, MRI T₁ and T₂ contrast tuning, and the use of up-conversion fluorescence in drug delivery and cancer cells ablation.

Colloidal quantum dots (QDs) are of interest for a variety of biomedical applications, including bioimaging, drug targeting, and photodynamic therapy. However, a significant limitation is that highly efficient photoluminescent QDs available commercially contain cadmium. Recent research has focused on cadmium-free QDs, which are anticipated to exhibit significantly lower cytotoxicity. Previous work has focused on InP and ZnO as alternative semiconductor materials for QDs. However, these nanoparticles have been shown to be cytotoxic. Recently, we have synthesized high quantum efficiency (exceeding 90%), color tunable MnSe/ZnSeS nanoparticles, as potentially attractive QDs for biomedical applications. Additionally, the manganese imparts magnetic properties on the QDs, which are important for magnetic field-guided transport, hyperthermia, and potentially magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The QDs can be further biofunctionalized via conjugation to a ligand or a biomarker of disease, allowing combination of drug delivery with visual verification and colocalization due to the color tunability of the QDs.

We investigate the quantum confined Stark effect (QCSE) of various nanoparticles (NPs) on the single molecule level at room temperature. We tested 8 different NPs with different geometry, material composition and electronic structure, and measured their QCSE by single molecule spectroscopy. This study reveals that suppressing the Coulomb interaction force between electron and hole by asymmetric type-II interface is critical for an enhanced QCSE. For example, ZnSe-CdS and CdSe(Te)-CdS-CdZnSe asymmetric nanorods (type-II) display respectively twice and more than three times larger QCSE than that of simple type-I nanorods (CdSe). In addition, wavelength blue-shift of QCSE and roughly linear Δλ-F (emission wavelength shift vs. the applied electric field) relation are observed for the type-II nanorods. Experimental results (Δλ-F or ΔE-F) are successfully reproduced by self-consistent quantum mechanical calculation. Intensity reduction in blue-shifted spectrum is also accounted for. Both calculations and experiments suggest that the magnitude of the QCSE is predominantly determined by the degree of initial charge separation in these structures.

Quantum dot-hydrotalcite layered nanoplatforms were successfully prepared following a one-pot synthesis. The process is very fast and a priori delamination of hydrotalcite is not a prerequisite for the intercalation of quantum dots. The novel materials were extensively characterized by X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetry, infrared spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, true color fluorescence microscopy, photoluminescence, and nitrogen adsorption. The quantum dot-hydrotalcite nanomaterials display extremely high stability in mimicking physiological media such as saline serum (pH 5.5) and PBS (pH 7.2). Yet, quantum dot release from the solid structure is noted. In order to prevent the leaking of quantum dots we have developed a novel strategy which consists on using tailor made double layered hydrotalcites as protecting shells for quantum dots embedded into silica nanospheres without changing either the materials or the optical properties.

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an inherited childhood-onset life-shortening disease. It is characterized by increased respiratory production, leading to airway obstruction, chronic lung infection and inflammatory reactions. The most common bacteria causing persisting infections in people with CF is Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Superparamagnetic Fe3O4 iron oxide nanoparticles (NPs) conjugated to the antibiotic (tobramycin), guided by a gradient of the magnetic field or subjected to an oscillating magnetic field, show promise in improving the drug delivery across the mucus and P. aeruginosa biofilm to the bacteria. The question remains whether tobramycin needs to be released from the NPs after the penetration of the mucus barrier in order to act upon the pathogenic bacteria. We used a zero-length 1-ethyl-3-[3-dimethylaminopropyl] carbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC) crosslinking agent to couple tobramycin, via its amine groups, to the carboxyl groups on Fe₃O₄ NPs capped with citric acid. The therapeutic efficiency of Fe₃O₄ NPs attached to the drug versus that of the free drug was investigated in P. aeruginosa culture.

Nucleus remains a significant target for nanoparticles with diagnostic and therapeutic applications because both genetic information of the cell and transcription machinery reside there. Novel therapeutic strategies (for example, gene therapy), enabled by safe and efficient delivery of nanoparticles and drug molecules into the nucleus, are heralded by many as the ultimate treatment for severe and intractable diseases. However, most nanomaterials and macromolecules are incapable of reaching the cell nucleus on their own, because of biological barriers carefully honed by evolution including cellular membrane and nuclear envelope. In this paper, we have demonstrated an approach of fabrication of biocompatible gold nanoparticle (Au NP)-based vehicles which can entering into cancer cell nucleus by modifying Au NPs with both PEG 5000 and two different peptides (RGD and nuclear localization signal (NLS) peptide). The Au NPs used were fabricated via femtosecond laser ablation of Au bulk target in deionized water. The Au NPs produced by this method provide chemical free, virgin surface, which allows us to carry out “Sequential Conjugation” to modify their surface with PEG 5000, RGD, and NLS. “Sequential Conjugation” described in this presentation is very critical for the fabrication of Au NP-based vehicles capable of entering into cancer cell nucleus as it enables the engineering and tuning surface chemistries of Au NPs by independently adjusting amounts of PEG and peptides bound onto surface of Au NPs so as to maximize their nuclear targeting performance and biocompatibility regarding the cell line of interest. Both optical microscopy and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) are used to confirm the in vitro targeted nuclear delivery of peptide-conjugated biocompatible Au NPs by showing their presence in the cancer cell nucleus.

The demonstration of fine control over nanomaterials within biological systems, particularly in live cells, is integral for the successful implementation of nanoparticles (NPs) in biomedical applications. Here, we show the ability to differentially label the endocytic pathway of mammalian cells in a spatiotemporal manner utilizing fluorescent nanocolloids (NCs) doped with a perylene-based dye. EDC-based conjugation of green- and red-emitting NCs to the iron transport protein transferrin resulted in stable bioconjugates that were efficiently endocytosed by HEK 293T/17 cells. The staggered delivery of the bioconjugates allowed for the time-resolved, differential labeling of distinct vesicular compartments along the endocytic pathway in a nontoxic manner. We further demonstrated the ability of the NCs to be impregnated with the anticancer therapeutic, doxorubicin. Delivery of the drug-doped nanoconjugates resulted in the intracellular release and nuclear accumulation of doxorubicin in a time- and dose-dependent manner. We discuss our results in the context of the utility of such materials for NP-mediated drug delivery applications.

Since the discovery of the trapping nature of laser beam, optical tweezers have been extensively employed to measure various parameters at micro/nano level. Optical tweezers show exceptional sensitivity to weak forces making it one of the most sensitive force measurement devices. In this work, we present a technique to measure the stiffness of a biomaterial at different points. For this purpose, a microparticle stuck at the bottom of the dish is illuminated by the trapping laser and respective QPD signal as a function of the distance between the focus of the laser and the center of the microparticle is monitored. After this, microparticle is trapped and manipulated towards the target biomaterial and when it touches the cell membrane, QPD signal shows variation. By comparing two different QPD signals and measuring the trap stiffness, a technique is described to measure the stiffness of the biomaterial at a particular point. We believe that this parameter can be used as a tool to identify and classify different biomaterials.

Several studies, over recent years, focus on the use of chitosan, a biocompatible macromolecule, to form gold nanoparticles (GNPs). In this study, gold nanoparticles were synthesized using chitosan and Chloroauric acid, under stirring which cause micro/nano-gels to form. Ultraviolet (UV) light is used to reduce solution into gold nanoparticles, in which the resulting nanoparticles are biocompatible after this reduction. In effort to obtain nanoparticles of different shape and size using the chitosan, different concentrations of monovalent salt, were added to the chitosan solution. The different signatures of the particles based on the concentration of the salt in the solution are observed using an optoacoustic setup to detect morphological changes in the particles due to shifts in the absorption resonance. The optoacoustic measurements are compared to the absorption spectra of the gold nanoparticles. The overall goal of this study is to investigate the influence of chitosan, with the addition of the monovalent salt, on the formation of the biocompatible gold nanoparticles. This characterization will aid in the preparation of measurements to take on these particles in other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum such as radio frequencies.

The quantum dots (QDs) for use in nanobiotechnology trials should be thermodynamically stable and have homogeneous dispersion, high radiative quantum efficiency (η), a very broad absorption spectrum, low levels of nonspecific links to biological compounds and, most importantly, stability in aqueous media. Recently, a new class of CdSe QDs called magic-sized quantum dots (MSQDs), with sizes from 1 to 2 nm and well-defined structures, has attracted considerable attention because of its novel physical properties. The present work reports the thermo-optical properties of CdSe/CdS MSQDs and CdSe/ZnS QDs suspended in aqueous solutions. Absolute nonradiative quantum efficiency (φ) and η values were determined applying two techniques: the well-known Thermal Lens (TL) technique and an alternative method called thermal spatial self-phase modulation (TSPM) technique.

Laser reconstruction of intervertebral disc (LRD) is a new technique which uses local, non-destructive laser irradiation for the controlled activation of regenerative processes in a targeted zone of damaged disc cartilage. Despite pronounced advancements of LRD, existing treatments may be substantially improved if laser radiation is absorbed near diseased and/or damaged regions in cartilage so that required thermomechanical stress and strain at chondrocytes may be generated and non-specific injury reduced or eliminated. The aims of the work are to study possibility to use nanoparticles (NPs) to provide spatial specificity for laser regeneration of cartilage. Two types of porcine joint cartilage have been impregnated with magnetite NPs: 1) fresh cartilage; 2) mechanically damaged cartilage. NPs distribution was studied using transition electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering and analytical ultracentrifugation techniques. Laser radiation and magnetic field have been applied to accelerate NPs impregnation. It was shown that NPs penetrate by diffusion into the mechanically damaged cartilage, but do not infiltrate healthy cartilage. Temperature dynamics in cartilage impregnated with NPs have been theoretically calculated and measurements using an IR thermo vision system have been performed. Laser-induced alterations of cartilage structure and cellular surviving have been studied for cartilage impregnated with NPs using histological and histochemical techniques. Results of our study suggest that magnetite NPs might be used to provide spatial specificity of laser regeneration. When damaged, the regions of cartilage impreganted with NPs have higher absorption of laser radiation than that for healthy areas. Regions containing NPs form target sites that can be used to generate laser-induced thermo mechanical stress leading to regeneration of cartilage of hyaline type.

Polymeric vesicles (Pluronic^® L-121) loaded with magnetic nanoparticles (MNP) and an anti-cancer drug (camptothecin) were prepared continuously in a micro mixing device. Characterization by TEM confirmed the successful incorporation of the MNP and DLS measurements showed a relatively narrow size distribution of the hybrid polymersomes. A very high drug loading of camptothecin (100 μg/ml in the polymersome formulation) was reached and a drug release study of loaded magnetic polymersomes has shown a sustained camptothecin release over several days. Carboxylation of Pluronic^® L-121 was performed and enabled a further surface functionalization with bombesin, a 14 amino acid peptide, which binds specifically to the GRPR (gastrin releasing peptide receptor). This receptor is often overexpressed in tumor cells (e.g., human prostate cancer cells) and therefore a suitable target for cancer treatment. An additional fluorescence label with Alexa Fluor^® 647 allow tracking of the polymersomes e.g., in cell experiments. Relaxivity measurements to evaluate the potential of magnetic polymersomes as MR contrast agent for in vivo imaging are in progress.

Lanthanide fluoride colloidal nanocrystals offer a way to improve the diagnosis and treatment of cancer through the enhanced absorption of ionizing radiation, in addition to providing visible luminescence. In order to explore this possibility, tests with a kilovoltage therapy unit manufactured by the Universal X-Ray Company were performed to estimate the energy sensitivity of this technique. La_0.2Ce_0.6Eu_0.2F₃ nanocrystals capped with polyethylene glycol of molecular weight 6000 were synthesized, suspended in deionized water, and made tolerant to biological ionic pressures by incubation with fetal bovine serum. These nanocrystals were characterized by dynamic light scattering, muffle furnace ashing, and photoluminescence spectroscopy. Clonogenic assays were performed on the cells to assay the cytotoxicity and radiotoxicity of the nanocrystals on the human pancreatic cancer cell line PANC-1, purchased from ATCC.

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