We propose a new method to evaluate coherence properties of wavelength-swept light sources for the optical coherence tomography. The method relies on the depth variation of the noise floor and allows to estimate long coherence length with a limited electrical bandwidth unlike the conventional sensitivity roll-off method. By fitting the theoretically predicted noise-floor variation to the experimental data, we have successfully obtained coherence lengths of 1.6, 0.51, and 0.15m for a microelectromechanically tunable vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser with the sweeping rates of 100, 200, and 400kHz, respectively. The coherence lengths are comparable with those obtained with the roll-off method when the coherence lengths are relatively short.
In optical lithography, high-performance exposure tools are indispensable to obtain not only fine patterns but also preciseness in pattern width. Since an accurate theoretical method is necessary to predict these values, some pioneer and valuable studies have been proposed. However, there might be some ambiguity or lack of consensus regarding the treatment of diffraction by object, incoming inclination factor onto image plane in scalar imaging theory, and paradoxical phenomenon of the inclined entrance plane wave onto image in vector imaging theory. We have reconsidered imaging theory in detail and also phenomenologically resolved the paradox. By comparing theoretical aerial image intensity with experimental pattern width for one-dimensional pattern, we have validated our theoretical consideration.
In optical lithography, high-performance exposure tools are necessary to obtain not only fine patterns but also preciseness of the pattern width. Therefore, an accurate theoretical method is necessary to predict these values in practice. Conversely speaking, lithography experiments enables us to evaluate the validity of imaging theory. Thus some pioneer and valuable studies have been argued [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9]. However there might be some ambiguity or no consensus for the treatment of diffraction by object in scalar imaging theory and a paradoxical phenomenon for the inclined entrance plane wave especially in vector imaging theory. Therefore we reconsider the imaging theory and compare the theoretical aerial image intensity with experimental pattern width.
A phase-resolved system based on swept source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) has to incorporate a phase-stabilized wavelength-swept light source. The phase variation is induced by fluctuation of a beginning swept frequency. The conventional phase-sensitive SS-OCTs use a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) in order to avoid A-scan trigger fluctuations. However this method does not always solve the trigger fluctuation problem. In actively mode-locked ring lasers (AMLLs), the beginning swept frequency fluctuates by abrupt frequency change between the end of a sweep and the beginning of the subsequent one. To overcome this issue, we proposes a new phase stabilization method. By employing the method with an auxiliary reference configuration, the sweeping phase has successfully stabilized because the timing jitter is calculated by interference signals from the auxiliary reference path. In this research, we have proposed the phase stabilization method that has nanometer sensitivity with millisecond response. In addition, the method has successfully suppressed the depth dependence of phase instability.
Fundamental performance of the swept-source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) system is defined by its wavelength-swept laser. Especially narrower instantaneous spectral linewidth of the laser has the advantage in deeprange tomography. We have demonstrated narrow-linewidth actively mode-locked ring lasers (AMLL), employing anomalous dispersion configuration. The linewidth of an AMLL is determined by anomalous dispersion and self-phase modulation (SPM) in the semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA). For such soliton-like phenomenon of AMLLs, numerical calculation predicts that both of large dispersion and small SPM make the linewidth narrower. Since the dispersion restricts wavelength sweeping range of AMLLs, too large dispersion cannot be used. To weaken the SPM effect, low linewidth enhancement factor α of SOA is desirable. Quantum-dot(QD)-based SOA offers low α-factor in comparison with quantum-well SOA (QWSOA). In this study, we employ a QDSOA as a gain medium in an AMLL and also use a QWSOA for comparison. The wavelength band of the QWSOA-AMLL is 1.5 μm and that of QDSOA-AMLL is 1.0 μm. Since we employed the 10 ps/nm of net dispersion in both configurations, the dispersion parameter β2 for the QDSOA-AMLL is approximately half of that for the QWSOA-AMLL. The measured full-width half-maximum (FWHM) linewidths in a static state were 0.08 nm for the QWSOA-AMLL and 0.04nm for the QDSOA-AMLL. In spite of the small β2 the QDSOA-AMLL achieves narrower spectral than the QWSOA-AMLL. We also confirmed that the interference signal was improved by adopting the QDSOA.
Since CD has become extraordinary fine, the limited performance has been required for optics. Therefore
computational lithography like SMO has been applied. Then it is difficult to evaluate prospectively the fundamental
performance of future optical lithography. However prospective evaluation method might be useful to discuss the future
lithography. Thus we had already proposed the analytical equations to evaluate resolution of RETs with considering
depth of focus[1,2,4]. In this paper, we reconsider and revise the equations and evaluate the fundamental resolution of
immersion DPL(Double Patterning Lithography) and EUVL(Extreme Ultra Violet Lithography).
Even though odd-order aspherical surfaces have sometimes been used in optics, their meaning and effectiveness have not been discussed enough to be fully understood. However, we have already discussed and derived mathematically that odd-order aspherical surfaces cannot be represented in the form of a power series of even-order even when rotationally symmetric. We have also explained that this result does not contradict the fact that the set of Zernike's circle polynominals forms a complete system and that their rotational symmetric terms consist only of even-order terms of radial coordinates. First, we reconsider these mathematical discussions. Second, we reveal that the first- and third-order aspherical surfaces are valuable in practical lens designing for catoptoric projection optics of extreme ultraviolet lithography.
State-of-the-art lithography is often severely influenced by defects that are smaller than the resolution limit of the
mask inspection system. However, the mask inspection suffers from noises comparable to signal of the small defect, due
to illumination nonuniformity, laser speckle, and fluctuation of the sensor signal. In order to overcome these issues, we
propose a novel mask defect inspection method that uses detection optics for polarization variation. This inspection
method uses the variation of polarization states which are caused by form birefringence in the mask feature. Thus the
defect signals in the polarization-variation image can be obtained with sufficient intensity for much smaller defects than
the wavelength. However since pattern edges are especially emphasized in the polarization-variation images, the images
can not faithfully be acquired the mask pattern. To avoid these problems, we simultaneously use both conventional
transmitted inspection images and the polarization variation images. By using numerical simulation, this paper discusses the validity of the mask inspection method that detects the polarization variation. The simulated results show that this new inspection method is quite effective for 20-nm-size defect and smaller ones.
The conventional scalar imaging theories that are represented in the Fresnel-Kirchhoff diffraction formula or the Rayleigh-Sommerfeld diffraction formulae involve contradictions. By introducing incoming inclination factors not only for the diffraction surface but also for the image plane, we propose a new equation that fulfills both the self-consistency and the reciprocity theorem. We also confirm the validity of this new equation by both theoretical discussions and numerical calculations.
One annoying problem that degrades high-fidelity pattern images in mask-defect inspection systems is the generation of ghost images in the imaging process. Ghost images arise from spatial coherence periodicity on the mask plane, which is due to periodic and discrete arrangements of fly-eye elements in mask inspection optics. By considering the contrast of ghost images under partial coherence illumination, we can derive the condition that represents the necessary number of fly-eye elements to substantially suppress ghost images in the image field. In addition, we confirm this theoretically derived condition of suppressing ghost images by numerical calculations. As a result, we prove that this suppresing condition is effective, and that the nonuniformity in distribution of image intensity can also be reduced in this way.
Due to the feature size shrinking, the application of 193nm-ArF scanner systems with high numerical aperture (NA)
and the use of resolution enhancement technologies (RET) have been essential for obtaining the desired pattern
accuracy on a wafer. Thus the complexity and volume of data required for masks have been rapidly increasing.
Moreover, the complexity of mask pattern makes mask inspection increasingly more difficult. The most annoying
problem relating to the sensitivity of inspection system is the encountering of false signals arising from nuisance
defects. Setting up thresholds in the defect detection algorithm is a difficult task between high sensitivity and less false
defect detection. In addition, the effect of variations in defect printability which is strongly dependent on defect types
and position must be considered in order to correctly evaluate mask defect inspection procedures.
In order to overcome the problems we have previously proposed new algorithm for die-to-wafer-like image (D-to-WI) in real time. This inspection method compares the die, i.e. the wafer image calculated from CAD data, with the
wafer-like image calculated from the mask images detected by the mask inspection system.
This paper described optimum mask inspection optics for the D-to-WI mask inspection. We verify the optimum mask
inspection optics with numerical simulation for various NA and partial coherence of illumination (σ) in the mask
inspection optics. The simulated result shows that the optimum mask inspection optics has NA 0.9 and σ=1 for ArF-6%-PSM (Phase Shift Mask) 65/65 nm Line/Space pattern of 193nm-ArF scanner with NA 0.92. In this case the difference
of the critical dimensions (CDs) found by D-to-WI and rigorous simulation results from CAD data was less than 1.5nm.
The most annoying problem accompanying production of high-fidelity pattern images in mask defect inspection
systems is the generation of virtual images in the imaging process. The focused image pattern on the image acquisition
sensor has two images, one true and one virtual. The virtual images are generated under Kohler's illumination using
an integrator. The theoretical cause of this virtual image is the periodicity of the integrator.
The improvement of image quality gives the mask defect inspection system higher defect detection sensitivity. To
reduce virtual images, the double integrator method is applied to the illumination optics. By adopting the double
integrator illumination method, virtual images disappear in the imaging field. Further, since this also lowers the power
density at bright spots, the interference of lenses in working environments at the aperture stop position between
objective imaging lenses is greatly reduced.
This paper reports a method by which the ill effects of image quality improvement in the mask defect inspection
system can be dramatically reduced. The simulation results when this method is applied to an advanced mask defect
inspection system are shown.
Recently, since micro optics have been widely used in many optical systems, it is desired to evaluate correctly the
performance of such a micro optics and design them properly. In order to estimate accurately the diffraction effect,
rigorous inclination factor of diffraction should be utilized.
In this paper, we derive theoretically the self-consistent inclination factor which satisfies the reciprocity theorem in
scalar imaging theory. By calculating numerically the point spread function in micro optics of no aberration, we also
confirm the self-consistency of this factor. That is, the point spread function calculated by the diffraction at a spherical
surface on the pupil coincides with that calculated by the diffraction at a plane on the same pupil.
Our result will be very useful for evaluating and designing micro optics.
The concept of defect printability, i.e., mask error enhancement factor (MEEF), should be integrated into mask defect inspection procedures, and thus avoid the huge burden of defect detection algorithm development. It is necessary to simplify the difficult task of defining defect size which is caused by nonlinear transfer of killer defects, and which is strongly dependent on defect types. One solution to the problem is to incorporate defect printability study using aerial image based inspection into the existing mask inspection system. This paper shows how the measured mask pattern images obtained from mask inspection system are transformed into wafer-like images by simulation-based software. It is important that wafer-like images (WI) from measured mask images are created within a reasonable calculation time and the result has sufficient accuracy. The paper also introduces calculation of aerial images using perturbation approach and demonstrates the possibility of D-to-WI inspection. The paper points out that the technique of generating wafer-like image from measured mask pattern is well established for attenuated PSMs and Cr binary masks.
In extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography technology, ultra low thermal expansion material is required as photomask substrate. We have previously developed Ti-doped silica glass which exhibits both ultra low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) and high homogeneity for EUV substrate. On the other hand, we have been investigating other candidate materials which have low CTE, from the viewpoint of structural chemistry. Silica glass is well-known as a low thermal expansion material and the reason is explained that in the open structure of silica glass two factors, expansion and shrinkage, compete with each other with increase in temperature. The network of silica glass consists of tetrahedra like quartz crystal. In this structure, Si is stably present with a valence of 4 and a coordination number of 4. We have carried out an atomistic simulation and estimated the volume change of oxide materials which may have the same structural transformation mechanism as SiO2. As a result, the volume of SnO2 with quartz structure (quartz-SnO2), in which Sn was present with a valance of 4 and a coordination number of 4, decreased with increase in temperature, that is, the density of quartz-SnO2 increased. Thus, it was indicated that the glass with lower CTE than that of silica glass could be obtained with substituting Sn for Si. Based on this hypothesis, we have prepared Sn-doped silica glass by Asahi silica glass producing method. The synthesized Sn-doped silica glass exhibited lower CTE than that of an ordinary silica glass.
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