Semiconductor lasers have become the light source of choice in many applications. For example, IR VCSELs are widely used for sensing purposes in consumer electronics, replacing the LEDs. Advantages in manufacturing and the ability to tailor the properties to the requirement of different applications were the key success. On the other hand, longer wavelength i.e. SWIR (Short-wave Infrared) are appearing and expected to rise further since they create new possibilities and applications. Eventually, detailed and accurate electrical and optical characteristics of these illumination sources is essential. LIV curves and spectrum analysis are fundamental measurement to determine the operating characteristics. They are widely used at various stages since it is critical to identify failed DUTs early in the manufacturing process. In this study, we introduce complete measurement setup for LIV with spectrum analysis of SWIR semiconductor lasers. These lasers have wavelength longer than 1000nm and therefor GaAs or silicon based sensors are not applicable. Hereby InGaAs sensors with appropriate optics and electronics are combined. Our measurement set up benefits from a highresolution array spectroradiometer, highly reflective integrating sphere and sensitive photodiode sensor. Further, the measurement setup is metrologically calibrated and is traceable to the international standards. Consequently, the LIV curves and spectrum of the DUT were measured at high spectral and electrical resolution. From LIV curves power conversion efficiency, threshold current, slope efficiency, kinks and rollover point were further calculated and analyzed. At the same time, the DUT temperature was controlled and tempered at different temperatures. The influence of the temperature on the laser performance, characteristics and properties is thoroughly analyzed. Extension and further atomization of our measurement routine is required to facilitate the semiconductor lasers development and as well to speed up the industrialization of the semiconductor lasers.
To determine electro-optical characterization of laser diodes, various measurements are usually performed including LIV+λ (with spectrum) characterization. For VCSEL arrays with the existing solutions, it is hardly possible and timely expensive to perform these measurements since there are few up to some hundreds of single emitters within the array. VCSEL arrays are beneficial for technologies like structured light and Face ID, in which detailed characterization of individual emitters are required. Furthermore, polarized VCSEL arrays are unique and have potential applications, which then requires not only the LIV+λ but also polarization measurement of each emitter. Therefore, in this study, not only we extended the LIV+λ measurements to each individual emitters in a VCSEL array but also their polarization is measured. Our experimental design consists of a camera based radiant power and polarization measurement coupled to an array spectrometer. The system measures the absolute optical power, traceable to the standards. The VCSEL array mounted on a tempering system with a direct feedback loop. In order to characterize the stability of the VCSEL array in various environmental conditions, all the measurements were done further at multiple temperatures. Depending for which application the VCSEL will be, the valid range of the measured parameters of each emitter can be set. Therefore, non-functional emitters were determined. The design offers fast one-shot and comprehensive characterization of emitters of VCSEL arrays, allowing parallelization of the measurements to reduce overall measurement time and to determine damaged or out of spec VCSELs at early stage of the manufacturing process.
Rendering of the virtual environment in VR devices is computationally expensive. Foveated rendering uses eye tracking to reduce this by only rendering the portion of virtual environment where the user is looking at. The eye tracking module has multiple near-infrared (NIR) LEDs to illuminate the eye homogenously and a camera to track the direction of gaze and eye movement. However, NIR illumination is potentially harmful to the human eye and skin. On the other hand, the safety assessment of eye tracking systems is not straight forward because it is not clear what standard and measurement recommendations to use. The international photobiological safety standard IEC 62471 provides guidelines for evaluating the photobiological hazards of incoherent broadband light sources for illumination purposes. The technical report CIE 245 is tailored for eye tracking systems, but provides only advisory information which is not mandatory. We have evaluated the hazards of a VR eye tracking module according to IEC 62471 and CIE 245. A measurement set up was designed and the classification scheme was used to classify the module. The number of LEDs, their geometrical orientation, optical power and duration of the exposure and the proximity to the eye are among the important parameters that could increase the damage to the cornea, lens and retina. Furthermore, since these modules have multiple IR sources in close proximity to the eye and are meant for prolonged use, the long-term hazard assessment must be thoroughly investigated. Our safety assessment was done on a VR module and opens up possibilities to extend this safety assessment for other eye tracking modules used in AR, VR and MR.
LIV curves are fundamental measurement of laser diodes to determine electrical and optical operating characteristics. LIV curves consist of L-I curves (optical intensity against current) and V-I curves (voltage against current). LIV curves determine power conversion efficiency, threshold current, slope efficiency, kinks, rollover point and more. They are widely used at various stages since it is critical to identify failed DUTs early in the manufacturing process. LIV curves are always measured for the DUTs with single emitter or for DUT as a whole when consisting of many emitters. Detailed and comprehensive LIV test, spectrum and beam analysis of each single emitter of an array is the focus of this study. We extend existing one-dimensional LIV test, spectral and beam analysis (including beam numerical aperture, M2 and beam waist) to each single emitter of the laser diode array at well-controlled conditions. Our experimental design consists of camera based radiant power and spectrum measurement. This approach allows parallelization of the measurements, which reduces overall measurement time, and investigation on the cross-talk between individual emitters. We analyzed electrical, optical and spectral differences within emitters of a VCSEL array and as well with the array as a whole. The accepted range of variation can be set in order to identify underperforming or out-of-specification single emitters. Therefore, defect or deficient laser diodes are detected at early stages of the manufacturing process, saving time and money. Such comprehensive characterization of individual emitters is crucial for demanding applications such as facial recognition, 3D sensing, in cabin sensing, LiDAR and ranging.
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