This paper presents an overview of the specific challenges that need to be overcome to make very-large CCD and CMOS
imagers, and presents some recent innovations in this area. The complete development chain is described: research,
production and industrialization. It will be shown that by innovative design and technology concepts, high-quality very large
area CCD and CMOS imagers can be made, even up to wafer size (6" for CCD, 8" for CMOS).
This paper gives an overview of the requirements for, and current state-of-the-art of, CCD and CMOS imagers for use in digital still photography. Four market segments will be reviewed: mobile imaging, consumer "point-and-shoot cameras", consumer digital SLR cameras and high-end professional camera systems. The paper will also present some challenges and innovations with respect to packaging, testing, and system integration.
A 28-M pixel, full-frame CCD imager with 7.2×7.2 μm2 pixel size and Bayer RGB color pattern was developed for use in professional applications. As unique option a RGB compatible binning feature was designed into this sensor. This gives the possibility to exchange resolution for sensitivity, read-out speed and signal-to-noise ratio. This paper presents the device architecture, RGB binning principle and evaluation results of the overall sensor performance. The performed device simulations and the evaluation results of the RGB binning feature are described in detail.
To meet the continuous demand for more resolution in professional digital imaging, 22M pixels, 645-film format full-frame CCD image sensor was developed as an improved upgrade for an existing 11M pixel 35 mm CCD. This paper presents the device requirements, architecture, modes of operation, and evaluation results of the performance improvements.
Although the number of pixels in image sensors is increasing exponentially, production techniques have only been able to linearly reduce the probability that a pixel will be defective. The result is a rapidly increasing probability that a sensor will contain one or more defective pixels. Sensors with defects are often discarded after fabrication because they may not produce aesthetically pleasing images. To reduce the cost of image sensor production, defect correction algorithms are needed that allow the utilization of sensors with bad pixels. We present a relatively simple defect correction algorithm, requiring only a small 7 by 7 kernel of raw color filter array data that effectively corrects a wide variety of defect types. Our adaptive edge algorithm is high quality, uses few image lines, is adaptable to a variety of defect types, and independent of other on-board DSP algorithms. Results show that the algorithm produces substantially better results in high-frequency image regions compared to conventional one-dimensional correction methods.
Albert Theuwissen, Monique Beenhakkers, Bart Dillen, Hein Folkerts, Henk Heyns, Laurens Korthout, Gregory Kreider, Peter Opmeer, Herman Peek, Edwin Roks, Helmut Rosner, Arjen van der Sijde, Frans Vledder
A bouwblok concept is described which allows one to fabricate several large area CCD image sensors from a single mask set. The size of the various imagers can differ both horizontally as well as vertically. The new method drastically reduces the development time and the associated cost of a new sensor. Because all images use of same basic pixel structure, the characteristics of new configurations can be fairly well predicted.
A 1k X 1k frame transfer progressive scan imager was developed, based on a 1k X 1k interlaced frame transfer imager, the FT12. The sensors are designed for 2/3' optical format. They have a high resolution (1024 X 1024 pixels), overexposure handling by means of vertical anti-blooming, and square pixels of 7.5 micrometers by 7.5 micrometers . The frame rate is 30 frames per second. The single output register can run up to 40 MHz. The register can be clocked bi-directionally, which makes it possible to produce a mirrored image. The paper describes the sensors, simulations, and measurements.
A frame transfer image sensor has been fabricated for 2/3' optical format. It has a high resolution (1024 X 1024), overexposure handling by means of vertical anti-blooming and square pixels of 7.5 micrometers by 7.5 micrometers . The data-rate is 30 frames per second. Its single output register can run up to 40 MHz. The register can be clocked bi-directionally, which makes it possible to produce a mirrored image. The noise level of the output amplifier is 31 electrons (rms value in 18 MHz bandwidth). These properties make the imager perfectly suited for machine vision applications where full resolution in a single shot is required. The paper describes the sensor, simulation results and measurements.
Philips Imaging Technology has succeeded in fabricating an image sensor especially suited for digital image processing. The FT12 sensor is of the frame transfer type and designed for 2/3' optical format. It has a high resolution (1024 X 1024 in interlaced mode), overexposure handling by means of vertical anti-blooming and square pixels of 7.5 micrometers by 7.5 micrometers . The data rate is 60 fields per second in interlaced mode. Its single output register can run up to 40 MHz. The register can be clocked bi-directionally, which makes it possible to produce a mirrored image. These properties make it perfectly suited for machine vision applications, like pattern recognition and real-time process monitoring. The paper describes the sensor, simulation results, measurements, as well as the implementation of the sensor in a camera module.
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