We present a 32-transmitter, 32-receiver dual-wavelength frequency-domain (FD) fNIRS system comprised of commercially available avalanche photodiodes, laser drivers and laser mounts. The custom frequency domain (FD) fNIRS system is used to interrogate cerebral tissue with optodes positioned at the posterior occipital region of the head. Data are collected from human subjects watching movie scenes with no sound. We applied cross-validated PCA to identify the number of dimensions retained in the neural signal recorded using FD-fNIRS for the magnitude, phase, and FD (magnitude and phase combined) components of the recorded signal. Importantly, a comparison of the cross-validation error for each signal allows us quantify the dimensionality of the linear subspace spanned by each data type. The number of principal components producing the minimum cross-validation error for the held-out test runs represents the number of orthogonal signal dimensions preserved across training and held-out test data runs. We find that the FD signal captures a higher dimensional space compared to the magnitude or phase signals in isolation. Previous theoretical and empirical work suggest that signals extracted using FD-fNIRS contain higher fidelity neural information than CW-fNIRS in isolation. The findings reported here further support this hypothesis and extend beyond the findings reported in the literature, demonstrating that a higher dimension linear subspace is covered by FD-fNIRS above and beyond the baseline signal captured using traditional CW-fNIRS, assuming other optical performance metrics such as optical dynamic range, noiseequivalent power and cross-talk are comparable. This work was funded by a research contract under Facebook’s Sponsored Academic Research Agreement.
Frequency-domain (FD) fNIRS is attractive for non-invasive brain imaging because phase-sensitive detection leads to increased resolution and may exhibit improved robustness to motion artifacts. We present an FD-fNIRS system with silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) receivers, where the sensitivity and dynamic range approach those of a first-class continuous-wave (CW-) fNIRS system. This represents a significant step toward fully exploiting the phase degree of freedom provided by FD-fNIRS. The transmitter subsystem includes 32 channels and each supplies 12.5 mW of coherent light at both 690 and 852 nm. A dedicated radio circuit intensity-modulates each laser, and they are independently configured to operate at frequencies up to 400 MHz. The transmitters are on-off-keyed according to a user-specified pattern to mitigate shot noise and maximize dynamic range. The receiver subsystem also includes 32 channels. Each consists of a large-area (2.16-mm diameter), high-NA (0.66) fiber bundle, which carries light to a custom photo-receiver. A three-lens assembly enhances coupling between the fiber-bundle and the SiPM, and the SiPM (ON Semiconductor MICRORB-10020) converts the signal to the electrical domain. The electrical signal is amplified and down-converted to the audio spectrum, and a transformer balances the signal and provides galvanic isolation. Each of the 32 audio waveforms is digitized at 192 kS/s in a bank of commercial audio digitizers. Using a modulation frequency of 211 MHz, swept-power measurements demonstrate that the average noise-equivalent power of the SiPM photo-receivers is 20.5 fW per square root Hz, with about 6 decades of optical dynamic range. This work was funded by a research contract under Facebook’s Sponsored Academic Research Agreement.
KEYWORDS: Tissue optics, In vivo imaging, Near infrared, Signal detection, Imaging systems, Neuroimaging, Optical properties, Absorption, Motion models, Tissues
Optical neuroimaging technologies aim to observe neural tissue structure and function by detecting changes in optical signals (scatter, absorption, etc…) that accompany a range of anatomical and functional properties of brain tissue. At present, there is a tradeoff between spatial and temporal resolution that is not currently optimized in a single imaging modality. We have developed a coherent optical imaging approach that begins to remove this trade-off and have demonstrated high spatiotemporal (<100µm and >100Hz) in-vivo recordings of neural activity over large 20mm2 areas.
David Blodgett, Eyal Bar-Kochba, Aaron Criss, Tom Criss, Jason Harper, Grace Hwang, Clare Lau, Carissa Rodriguez, Carlos Renjifo, Clara Scholl, Austen Lefebvre, Marek Mirski
Optical neuroimaging technologies aim to observe neural tissue structure and function by detecting changes in optical signals (scatter, absorption, etc…) that accompany a range of anatomical and functional properties of brain tissue. At present, there is a tradeoff between spatial and temporal resolution that is not currently optimized in a single imaging modality. This work focuses on filling the gap between the spatio-temporal resolutions of existing neuroimaging technologies by developing a coherent optics-based imaging system capable of extracting anatomical and functional information across a measurement volume by leveraging a coherent optics-based approach that provides both magnitude and phase information of the sample. We developed a digital holographic imaging (DHI) system capable of detecting these optical signals with a spatial resolution of better than 50 μm over a twenty-five mm2 field of view at sampling rates of 300 Hz and higher. The DHI system operates in the near-infrared (NIR) at 1064 nm, facilitating increased light penetration depths while minimizing contributions from overt changes in oxy- and deoxy-hemoglobin concentration present at shorter NIR wavelengths. This label-free imaging method detects intrinsic signals driven by tissue motion, allowing for innately spatio-temporally registered extraction of anatomical and functional signals in vivo. In this work, we present in vivo results from rat whisker barrel cortex demonstrating signals reflecting anatomical structure and tissue dynamics.
The development of portable non-invasive brain computer interface technologies with higher spatio-temporal resolution has been motivated by the tremendous success seen with implanted devices. This talk will discuss efforts to overcome several major obstacles to viability including approaches that promise to improve spatial and temporal resolution. Optical approaches in particular will be highlighted and the potential benefits of both Blood-Oxygen Level Dependent (BOLD) and Fast Optical Signal (FOS) will be discussed. Early-stage research into the correlations between neural activity and FOS will be explored.
The optical property characterization of Spinel and AlON samples, as provided by SURMET, is presented. Several experiments are performed to characterize the optical properties of the materials. A broadband FTIR transmissometer acquired data at temperatures ranging from 298 to 800 K covering a frequency range from 1887 cm-1 to 4000 cm-1. These measurements provided information on the broadband spectral properties of the samples and the temperature dependent shift of the multiphonon band edge. Laser transmission measurements were performed at 632.8 nm and 3.39 mm to provide very accurate transmission values at the two fixed wavelengths. Finally, BSDF measurements on uneroded/eroded sample pairs were performed at 632.8 nm and 3.39 mm. These measurements indicated that the erosion process introduced to these samples would have minimal affect on the imaging performance of the windows in the mid-infrared.
BSDF and BRDF measurements of randomly rough surfaces are often limited to the plane of incidence. For a surface with no change in optical properties upon rotation in the plane of the sample, this
is sufficient to completely represent the BRDF or BSDF of a material at a specific frequency. We apply a simple empirical model that accurately represents the full bi-directional dependence of the scatterance or reflectance based on this limited experimental data set. From these models the total integrated reflectance, total integrated scatterance, and emittance can be obtained. Example measurements of opaque painted flat surfaces, transparent samples, and fibers are presented.
ZnS and ZnSe are two of the most extensively used longwave infrared optical window materials. Standard grade ZnS exhibits excellent transmittance properties from the 7-12 micrometer region. Post-deposition hot-isostatic pressing converts the standard grade ZnS to multispectral ZnS. Multispectral ZnS is transparent from the ultraviolet to the longwave region. ZnSe is optically superior to any grade of ZnS, but significantly weaker. In this paper, the experimental characterization of the multiphoton absorption edge in standard and multispectral grade ZnS and ZnSe as a function of temperature and frequency is presented. A broadband FTIR transmissometer is used to acquire data at temperatures ranging from 10 to 800 K for both materials. The frequency range is from 600 to 5000 cm-1 for ZnS and 400 to 5000 cm-1 for ZnSe. Using this experimental data set a multiphonon absorption model is developed that represents the experimental data over all temperatures and frequencies.
Diamond and Silicon Carbide (SiC) are two of the most durable infrared transmitting window materials available today. Diamond is transparent from 0.25 - 3 μm, exhibits weak absorption in the mid-infrared, and is again transparent from 8 μm well into the microwave range. Silicon Carbide has a single infrared transmission window from a 0.4 - 6 μm. In this paper, experimental characterization of the multiphonon absorption in CVD diamond and various grades of SiC as a function of temperature and frequency is presented. A broadband FTIR transmissometer is used. The temperature range is from 10 to 800 K and the frequency range is from 500 to 5000 cm-1. Using this experimental data set up updated multiphonon absorption model is developed that represents the experimental data over all temperatures and frequencies.
The experimental characterization of multiphonon absorption in polycrystalline GaP and GaAs as a function of temperature and frequency is presented. Becaues GaP and GaAs have moderate bandgaps, free carrier absorption is examined at high temperature as well. The longwave transparency and excellent thermal and mechanical properties of GaP make it a candidate for future high-stress environment applications. In this paper, a broadband FTIR transmissometer is used with a frequency range from 500 to 5000 cm-1 for GaP and 400 to 5000 cm-1 for GaAs. Spectral measurements were performed from 10 to 800 K for GaP and 10 to 295 K for GaAs. In addition, high temperature laser transmittance measurements using HeNe lasers (632.8 nm and 3.39 μm) and a CO2 (10.6 μm) laser were conducted up to 1100 K. Using this experimental data set, an updated multiphonon and free carrier absorption model is developed that represents the experimental data over all temperatures and frequencies.
Dental health care and research workers require a means of imaging the structures within teeth in vivo. One critical need is the detection of tooth decay in its early stages. If decay can be detected early enough, the process can be monitored and interventional procedures, such as fluoride washes and controlled diet, can be initiated to help re-mineralize the tooth. Currently employed x-ray imaging is limited in its ability to visualize interfaces and incapable of detecting decay at a stage early enough to avoid invasive cavity preparation followed by a restoration. To this end, non-destructive and non-contact in vitro measurements on extracted human molars using laser-based ultrasonics are presented. Broadband ultrasonic waves are excited in the extracted sections by using a pulsed carbon-dioxide (CO2) laser operating in a region of high optical absorption in the dental hard tissues. Optical interferometric detection of the ultrasonic wave surface displacements in accomplished with a path-stabilized Michelson-type interferometer. Results for bulk and surface in-vitro characterization of caries are presented on extracted molars with pre-existing caries.
A non-destructive method for early detection of reinforcement steel bars (re-bar) delamination in concrete structures has been developed. This method, termed modal analysis, has been shown effective in both laboratory and field experiments. In modal analysis, an audio speaker is used to generate flexural resonant modes in the re-bar in reinforced concrete structures. Vibrations associated with these modes are coupled to the surrounding concrete and propagate to the surface where they are detected using a laser vibrometer and/or accelerometer. Monitoring both the frequency and amplitude of these vibrations provides information on the bonding state of the embedded re-bar. Laboratory measurements were performed on several specially prepared concrete blocks with re-bar of varying degrees of simulated corrosion. Field measurements were performed on an old bridge about to be torn down in Howard County, Maryland and the results compared with those obtained using destructive analysis of the bridge after demolition. Both laboratory and field test results show this technique to be sensitive to re-bar delamination.
A means of assessing the internal structure of teeth based upon use of high frequency, highly localized ultrasound (acoustic waves) generated by a short laser pulse is discussed. Some key advantages of laser-generated ultrasound over more traditional contact transducer methods are that it is noncontact and nondestructive in nature and requires no special surface preparation. Optical interferometric detection of ultrasound provides a complementary nondestructive, noncontact technique with a very small detection footprint. This combination of techniques, termed laser-based ultrasonics, holds promise for future in-vivo diagnostics of tooth health. In this paper, initial results using laser-based ultrasound for assessment of dental structures are presented on an extracted human incisor. Results show the technique to be sensitive to the enamel/dentin, dentin/pulp, and dentin/cementum junctions as well as a region of dead tracts in the dentin.
KEYWORDS: Ultrasonics, Near field, Ultrasonography, Near field optics, Transducers, Near field scanning optical microscopy, Spatial resolution, Copper, Wave propagation, Microscopes
The ability to characterize the sub-surface mechanical properties of a bulk or thin film material at the sub-micron level has applications in the microelectronics and thin film industries. In the microelectronics industry, with the decrease of line widths and the increase of component densities, sub-surface voids have become increasingly detrimental. Any voids along an integrated circuit (IC) line can lead to improper electrical connections between components and can cause failure of the device. In the thin film industry, the detection of impurities is also important. Any impurities can detract from the film's desired optical, electrical, or mechanical properties. Just as important as the detection of voids and impurities, is the measurement of the elastic properties of a material on the nanometer scale. These elastic measurements provide insight into the microstructural properties of the material. We have been investigating a technique that couples the high-resolution surface imaging capabilities of the apertureless near-field scanning optical microscope (ANSOM) with the sub-surface characterization strengths of high-frequency ultrasound. As an ultrasonic wave propagates, the amplitude decreases due to geometrical spreading, attenuation from absorption, and scattering from discontinuities. Measurement of wave speeds and attenuation provides the information needed to quantify the bulk or surface properties of a material. The arrival of an ultrasonic wave at or along the surface of a material is accompanied with a small surface displacement. Conventional methods for the ultrasound detection rely on either a contact transducer or optical technique (interferometric, beam deflection, etc.). However, each of these methods is limited by the spatial resolution dictated by the detection footprint. As the footprint size increases, variations across the ultrasonic wavefront are effectively averaged, masking the presence of any nanometer-scale sub-surface or surface mechanical property variations. The use of an ANSOM for sensing ultrasonic wave arrivals reduces the detection footprint allowing any nanometer scale variations in the microstructure of a material to be detected. In an ANSOM, the ultrasonic displacement is manifested as perturbations on the near-field signal due to the small variations in the tip-sample caused by the wave arrival. Due to the linear dependence of the near-field signal on tip-sample separation, these perturbations can be interpreted using methods identical to those for conventional ultrasonic techniques. In this paper, we report results using both contact transducer (5 MHz) and laser-generated ultrasound.
Neutron irradiation of sapphire with 1 x 1022 neutrons(<EQ MeV)/m2 increases the c-axis compressive strength by a factor of 3 at 600 degree(s)C. The mechanism of strength enhancement is the retardation of r-plane twin propagation by radiation-induced defects. 1-B and Cd shielding was employed during irradiation to filter our thermal neutrons (<EQ1 eV), thereby reducing residual radioactivity in the sapphire to background levels in a month. Yellow-brown irradiated sapphire is nearly decolorized to pale yellow by annealing at 600 degree(s)C with no loss of mechanical strength. Annealing at sufficiently high temperature (such as 1200 degree(s)C for 24 h) reduces the compressive strength back to its baseline value. Neutron irradiation decreases the flexure strength of sapphire at 600 degree(s)C by 0-20% in some experiments. However, the c- plane ring-on-ring flexure strength at 600 degree(s)C is doubled by irradiation. Elastic constants of irradiated sapphire are only slightly changed by irradiation. Infrared absorption and emission and thermal conductivity of sapphire are not affected by irradiation at the neutron fluence used in this study. Defects that might be correlated with strengthening were characterized by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. Color centers observed in the ultraviolet absorption spectrum were not clearly correlated with mechanical response. No radiation-induced changes could be detected by x-ray topography or x-ray diffraction.
Temperature dependent infrared transmittance measurements and room temperature BSDF measurements are collected on 1.5mm thick CVD diamond samples produced by De Beers Industrial Diamond Division. The transmittance measurements are from 2 to 20 micrometers covering the temperature range from room temperature to 400 degree(s)C. The BSDF measurements are conducted at wavelengths of 0.6328, 3.39, and 11 micrometers and as a function of the incidence angle. The total integrated scatter is obtained by integrating the BSDF function over all the reflection angles.
High quality measurements of the refractive index of Cleartran Zinc Sulfide at different temperatures over a wide frequency range are reported. The simplest expression of temperature dependence is the derivative of refractive index with respect to temperature, i.e. the thermo-optic coefficient. A convenient method for determining refractive index is measuring constructive or destructive interference between surfaces of a thick lamina that produce transmission peaks. Such transmittance measurements, made at several temperatures, along with knowledge of the sample thickness provide a comprehensive picture of the temperature-dependent refractive index. Results from these measurements show that ZnS has a dn/dT between 3x10-5 and 5.5x10-5 depending on temperature and wavelength. In addition, photoelastic measurements on both thin and thick samples in the visible and mid-IR region show ZnS to have a relative photoelastic constant of about 1.2x10-11m2/N.
The optical bi-directional reflectance distribution functions (BRDR) and bi-directional scattering distribution functions (BSDF) of human incisors were measured form -180° to 180° using a scatterometer at 632.8 nm, 1.064 μm, and 3.39 μm. Results from these measurements show that multiple scattering events dominate the optical characteristics of the tooth at the measurement wavelengths in the visible and near-IR. Results form the 3.39 μm wavelength indicate that very little scatter or absorption occurs. This allowed us to obtain an estimated absorption coefficient of about 0.7 cm-1, which is much smaller than previously reported for the visible and near-IR wavelengths.
Dental health care and research workers require a means of imaging the structures within teeth in vivo. For example, there is a need to image the margins of a restoration for the detection of poor bonding or voids between the restorative material and the dentin. With conventional x-ray techniques, it is difficult to detect cracks and to visualize interfaces between hard media. This due to the x-ray providing only a 2 dimensional projection of the internal structure (i.e. a silhouette). In addition, a high resolution imaging modality is needed to detect tooth decay in its early stages. If decay can be detected early enough, the process can be monitored and interventional procedures, such as fluoride washes and controlled diet, can be initiated which can help the tooth to re-mineralize itself. Currently employed x-ray imaging is incapable of detecting decay at a stage early enough to avoid invasive cavity preparation followed by a restoration with a synthetic material. Other clinical applications include the visualization of periodontal defects, the localization of intraosseous lesions, and determining the degree of osseointegration between a dental implant and the surrounding bone. A means of assessing the internal structure of the tooth based upon use of high frequency, highly localized ultrasound (acoustic waves) generated by a laser pulse is discussed. Optical interferometric detection of ultrasound provides a complementary technique with a very small detection footprint. Initial results using laser-based ultrasound for assessment of dental structures are presented. Discussion will center on the adaptability of this technique to clinical applications.
Of current interest in the missile community is the high- temperature mechanical behavior of single-crystal sapphire. For endo-atmospheric IR transparent windows, single crystal sapphire is the material of choice. However, sapphire has been found to undergo a significant change in the mechanical properties, leading to a potential fracture of the window at the high temperatures encountered during typical flight conditions. A critical figure of merit used in considering a material's usefulness as a dome material is its thermal shock resistance.
As was previously reported, a spatial light modulator (SLM) is being fabricated that exploits vanadium dioxide's (VO2) thermally induced transition from a semiconductive-to-metallic state. This transformation causes the film to change from a state of low to high reflectivity in the 3 - 12 micrometers region. Thermal control of the VO2 is provided by an array of p-n junction diodes, each diode constituting the center of a single `pixel' in the SLM. As power is applied to a diode, it generates heat, thereby providing an electrical means of controlling the reflective state of the VO2 film on its surface. The design of the SLM is driven by the need for a high optical contrast, large scale implementation, and high refresh rate. Unfortunately, these requirements are not conducive to each other, so compromises must be made. Optimizations of this design using either microchannel or chemical vapor deposition diamond heat sinks are reported. Both of these simulated designs attained pixel switching times in excess of 650 Hz.
In recent years, infrared (IR) spatial light modulators (SLM) have found applications in areas such as scene simulation and dynamic spatial frequency filtering. To help meet these requirements, we have developed two novel methods of SLM fabrication. Both SLM designs deposit a vanadium dioxide (VO2) thin film on a thermal array. VO2 films exhibit a temperature dependent hysteresis about their transition from dielectric to conductor. Accompanied with this transition is a change from a state of low to high reflectivity in the 3 - 5 micrometers band. Our two SLM designs exploit this temperature dependent hysteresis through the use of thermal arrays. The first SLM design deposits the VO2 thin film on a planar diode array. Each diode constitutes a `pixel' of the SLM. Power provided to a diode permits accurate thermal control about the film's hysteresis. Initial biasing of the diode array is required to the base of the VO2's hysteresis curve. The second SLM design deposits VO2 on a thermoelectric array. These pixels have the ability to both heat and cool the VO2 film, thereby allowing the array to be operated in a bistable mode. Bistable operation requires external biasing to the center of the VO2's hysteresis curve.
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