Frequency-domain (FD) optical tomography instruments modulate the intensity of the light source at a radio frequency and measure the amplitude and phase shift of the detected photon density wave. The differing spatial sensitivities of amplitude and phase to the optical properties of tissue suggest that inclusion of phase data can improve the image reconstruction accuracy. This study describes our methodology for improved use of FD data in conjunction with a Monte Carlo (MC) forward solver (Monte Carlo eXtreme; MCX) and a voxel-based model of a two-year-old child’s head. The child participated our previous study where subjects were stimulated with affective (slow brushing) and non-affective touch (fast brushing) to their right forearm, and the responses were measured from the left hemisphere with our in-house 16-channel high-density FD system. We implemented the computation of the FD sensitivity profiles to the MCX photon simulation software, and validated the output against our in-house MC code. We used simulated and the real experimental touch response data to observe the effects of including both FD data types to the image reconstruction instead of amplitude data alone. For the simulated and experimental case, we observed that the inclusion of phase data increases the reconstructed contrast in the brain. The individual touch responses showed similarity to the group-level results in our original publication with 16 subjects and amplitude data alone, and other literature.
In medical near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), movements of the subject often cause large step changes in the baselines of the measured light attenuation signals. This prevents comparison of hemoglobin concentration levels before and after movement. We present an accelerometer-based motion artifact removal (ABAMAR) algorithm for correcting such baseline motion artifacts (BMAs). ABAMAR can be easily adapted to various long-term monitoring applications of NIRS. We applied ABAMAR to NIRS data collected in 23 all-night sleep measurements and containing BMAs from involuntary movements during sleep. For reference, three NIRS researchers independently identified BMAs from the data. To determine whether the use of an accelerometer improves BMA detection accuracy, we compared ABAMAR to motion detection based on peaks in the moving standard deviation (SD) of NIRS data. The number of BMAs identified by ABAMAR was similar to the number detected by the humans, and 79% of the artifacts identified by ABAMAR were confirmed by at least two humans. While the moving SD of NIRS data could also be used for motion detection, on average 2 out of the 10 largest SD peaks in NIRS data each night occurred without the presence of movement. Thus, using an accelerometer improves BMA detection accuracy in NIRS.
The objective of the study was to assess the usability of a near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) device in multimodal
measurements. We combined NIRS with electroencephalography (EEG) to record hemodynamic responses and evoked
potentials simultaneously, and with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to investigate hemodynamic responses to
repetitive TMS (rTMS). Hemodynamic responses and visual evoked potentials (VEPs) to 3, 6, and 12 s stimuli
consisting of pattern-reversing checkerboards were successfully recorded in the NIRS/EEG measurement, and ipsi- and
contralateral hemodynamic responses to 0.5, 1, and 2 Hz rTMS in the NIRS/TMS measurement. In the NIRS/EEG
measurements, the amplitudes of the hemodynamic responses increased from 3- to 6-s stimulus, but not from 6- to 12-s
stimulus, and the VEPs showed peaks N75, P100, and N135. In the NIRS/TMS measurements, the 2-Hz stimulus
produced the strongest hemodynamic responses compared to the 0.5- and 1-Hz stimuli. In two subjects oxyhemoglobin
concentration decreased and in one increased as a consequence of the 2-Hz rTMS. To locate the origin of the measured
NIRS responses, methods have to be developed to investigate TMS-induced scalp muscle contractions. In the future,
multimodal measurements may prove useful in monitoring or treating diseases such as stroke or Alzheimer's disease.
KEYWORDS: Data modeling, Tissue optics, Absorption, Magnetic resonance imaging, Monte Carlo methods, Optical properties, Photons, Brain, Head, Finite element methods
We have developed a perturbation Monte Carlo method for calculating forward and inverse solutions to the
optical tomography imaging problem in the presence of anatomical a priori information. The method uses
frequency domain data. In the present work, we consider the problem of imaging hemodynamic changes due
to brain activation in the infant brain. We test finite element method and Monte Carlo based implementations
using a homogeneous model with the exterior of the domain warped to match digitized points on the skin.
With the perturbation Monte Carlo model, we also test a heterogeneous model based on anatomical a priori
information derived from a previously recorded infant T1 magnetic resonance (MR) image. Our simulations
show that the anatomical information improves the accuracy of reconstructions quite significantly even if the
anatomical MR images are based on another infant. This suggests that significant benefits can be obtained
by the use of generic infant brain atlas information in near-infrared spectroscopy and optical tomography studies.
The quality of phase and amplitude data from two medical optical tomography systems were compared. The two systems are a 32-channel time-domain system developed at University College London (UCL) and a 16-channel frequency-domain system developed at Helsinki University of Technology (HUT). Difference data measured from an inhomogeneous and a homogeneous phantom were compared with a finite-element method (diffusion equation) and images of scattering and absorption were reconstructed based on it. The measurements were performed at measurement times between 1 and 30 s per source. The mean rms errors in the data measured by the HUT system were 3.4% for amplitude and 0.51 deg for phase, while the corresponding values for the UCL data were 6.0% and 0.46 deg, respectively. The reproducibility of the data measured with the two systems was tested with a measurement time of 5 s per source. It was 0.4% in amplitude for the HUT system and 4% for the UCL system, and 0.08 deg in phase for both systems. The image quality of the reconstructions from the data measured with the two systems were compared with several quantitative criteria. In general a higher contrast was observed in the images calculated from the HUT data.
Kalle Kotilahti, Ilkka Nissila, Riikka Makela, Tommi Noponen, Lauri Lipiainen, Nasia Gavrielides, Timo Kajava, Minna Huotilainen, Vineta Fellman, Pekka Merilainen, Toivo Katila
We have used near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) to study hemodynamic auditory evoked responses on 7 full-term neonates. Measurements were done simultaneously above both auditory cortices to study the distribution of speech and music processing between hemispheres using a 16-channel frequency-domain instrument. The stimulation consisted of 5-second samples of music and speech with a 25-second silent interval. In response to stimulation, a significant increase in the concentration of oxygenated hemoglobin ([HbO2]) was detected in 6 out of 7 subjects. The strongest responses in [HbO2] were seen near the measurement location above the ear on both hemispheres. The mean latency of the maximum responses was 9.42±1.51 s. On the left hemisphere (LH), the maximum amplitude of the average [HbO2] response to the music stimuli was 0.76± 0.38 μ M (mean±std.) and to the speech stimuli 1.00± 0.45 μ± μM. On the right hemisphere (RH), the maximum amplitude of the average [HbO2] response was 1.29± 0.85 μM to the music stimuli and 1.23± 0.93 μM to the speech stimuli. The results indicate that auditory information is processed on both auditory cortices, but LH is more concentrated to process speech than music information. No significant differences in the locations and the latencies of the maximum responses relative to the stimulus type were found.
Visually evoked hemodynamic responses and potentials were simultaneously measured using a 16-channel optical imaging instrument and a 60-channel electroencephalography instrument during normo-, hypo- and hypercapnia from three subjects. Flashing and pattern-reversed checkerboard stimuli were used. The study protocol included two counterbalanced measurements during both normo- and hypocapnia and normo- and hypercapnia. Hypocapnia was produced by controlled hyperventilation and hypercapnia by breathing carbon dioxide enriched air. Near-infrared imaging was also used to monitor the concentration changes of oxy- and deoxyhaemoglobin due to hypo- and hypercapnia. Hemodynamic responses and evoked potentials were successfully detected for each subject above the visual cortex. The latencies of the hemodynamic responses during hypocapnia were shorter whereas during hypercapnia they were longer when compared to the latencies during normocapnia. Hypocapnia tended to decrease the latencies of visually evoked potentials compared to those during normocapnia while hypercapnia did not show any consistent effect to the potentials. The developed measurement setup and the study protocol provide the opportunity to investigate the neurovascular coupling and the links between the baseline level of blood flow, electrical activity and hemodynamic responses in the human brain.
We have developed a frequency-domain near-infrared device suitable for physiological studies in human. In this work, a four-channel configuration of the instrument is applied to monitor hemodynamic and oxygenation changes in the frontal cortex of volunteers during different ventilation tasks. We use four different source-receiver separations (2, 3, 4, and 5 cm) and three wavelengths (760, 808, and 830 nm) to test the sensitivity of these parameters to cardiovascular and metabolic changes. Low-frequency oscillations (~ 0.02 Hz) and variations in heart rate during different ventilation tasks are investigated as well. We also study physiological changes during natural sleep using the frequency-domain instrument simultaneously with a polysomnography system containing a pulse oximeter. Our results indicate that hemodynamic and oxygenation changes in the frontal cortex during natural sleep can be detected using near-infrared measurements.
We used a four-channel intensity-modulated near-infrared spectroscopy device to study the hemodynamic responses due to brain activation in adults and neonates. The stimuli included finger tapping, tickling of the heel, and auditory stimuli. The subjects included two adults and ten neonates of age between 0.5 and 4 days. A block paradigm was used in the studies, and responses were successfully obtained from both subject groups.
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