A selectively excited bimodal interferometer was developed for highly sensitive detection of refractive index changes. Numerical simulation revealed that multimode waveguides with tall, narrow cross-sections are suitable for realizing a highly sensitive bimodal (fundamental and lateral first-order modes) interferometer, owing to deeper penetration of the lateral first-order mode through its side surfaces into the cladding medium. A device with an optimum design was determined by simulation and fabricated by electron-beam lithography using a negative photoresist as the material for the waveguide core. The detection of glucose was demonstrated, and the sensitivity and detection limit was found to be 2547 rad / RIU (RIU—refractive index unit) and 9.8 × 10 − 6 RIU, respectively.
A hybrid plasmon waveguide (HPWG) consisting of a gold layer, a 100-nm high nanogap, and a SiN layer with a high refractive index on a SiO2 / Si substrate was designed by simulation and was applied in a Mach–Zehnder interferometer biosensor. For the incidence of a transverse magnetic (TM) mode light, a strongly enhanced electric field in the nanogap region caused by the modified surface plasmon enabled highly sensitive detection at the metal/solution interface. In contrast, the transverse electric (TE) mode enabled a high bulk-sensitivity due to the evanescent field in the nanogap. The HPWG structure was formed by electron beam lithography and electrochemical sacrificial layer etching. The output intensity of the fabricated device oscillated upon the replacement of the medium in the nanogap for both TE and TM mode excitations, which agreed with the obtained simulation results. Furthermore, the hybridization of DNA on the gold surface was detected, demonstrating that the HPWG structure is applicable to use in biosensing.
A silicon nitride directional coupler (DC) used to create a biosensing device is presented. The DC detects changes in the refractive index of the cladding (nclad) as changes in the relative output intensity. The DC length (L), nclad-dependent sensitivities of the DC, and preferred dimensions of the single-mode DC waveguides are obtained through numerical simulations. The performance of the DC is evaluated through end-fire coupling measurements. The intensities measured after varying the nclad using air, water, and glycerol solutions agree well with the fitting for a wide range of L values between 60 and 600 μm, i.e., corresponding to 6 to 60 times the coupling length. The bulk refractive index sensitivity was investigated using glycerol solutions of different concentrations and was found to be 18.9 optical intensity units per refractive index unit (OIU/RIU). Biotin/streptavidin bindings were detected with a sensitivity of 60 OIU/RIU and a detection limit of 0.13 μM, suggesting the feasibility of the DC for immunosensing.
We used silicon nitride (Si3N4) directional coupler (DC) interferometers to fabricate evanescent field biosensors for detection of aptamer hybridization. The DC detects temporal changes in refractive index (RI) as changes in the relative intensities of near-fields. Numerical simulation provided information for sensitivity of the DC as well as preferable dimensions of single mode waveguides. The result suggests that lengthening the DC improves its sensitivity. Another approach to realize high sensitivity was to make the coupling region of the DC longer for a given complete coupling length Lc. A folded DC is also presented based on calculations using Si waveguides. Here a meander-line with an array of segmented DCs and asymmetric 180°-curved waveguides was accommodated in a (100 μm)2 square area. Phases of propagating lights within two curved waveguides could be coincided. This cascade-connection of the segments of the DCs facilitated highly sensitive detection of biomolecules and a flexible sensor design. Signal dependences on device length and bulk RI change were evaluated by end-fire coupling measurements. The optical intensities agreed well with the corresponding fitting curve and the curve calculated based on the coupled mode theory.
Alternating stacks of metal and dielectric films with nano-hole arrays, called fishnet structures, control the propagation
of electromagnetic waves. In such a structure, changing a dimension or a shape, especially the change in shape of nanoholes,
affect propagation constants. In this study, we report the dispersivity of fishnet structures is controllable with
different hole shapes, by measuring the interferometric fringe in various wavelengths. Two structures were fabricated,
which consist of five alternating stacks of aluminum and silicon dioxide with nano-hole arrays. The holes in one of the
structures are circular with diameters of 500nm, and the other are square with 500nm sides. The lattice constant in each
case is 1,000nm. Since fishnet structures are wavelength-dependent structures, the variable-wavelength interferometric
microscope was set up. The phase shift of the circular hole and the square hole fishnet were about 110 degrees and 85
degrees, respectively, within a tunable wavelength from 1,470nm to 1,545nm. These values were equivalent to a
refractive-index-change of 0.8 and 0.6, respectively. From these results, fishnet structures indicate high dispersivity
within target wavelengths. The dispersion of fishnet structure can be controlled by the shape of the hole.
Fundamental technologies of GaAs-based two-dimensional photonic crystals (2DPCs) and an application to ultra-small photonic integrated devices/circuits including future ultra-fast all-optical signal processing devices are reviewed. The review is focusing on the precise nano-fabrication of air-hole lattices and resultant excellent 2DPC waveguide characteristics. Demonstrated results include low propagation loss, high transmittance spectra with large out-of band attenuation in a near infrared region, wavelength-selective directional coupler operation, successful experimental simulation on an optical interference in intentionally designed asymetric MZ waveguide pattern and large nonlinear phase-shift appearance at low excited energy. Application of these results to an ultra-small and ulta-fast symmetric Mach-Zehnder type all-optical switch resulted in the measured switching window width of 15 ps and switching energy of 100 fJ at a 1.3-μm wavelength.
We demonstrated a novel two-dimensional photonic crystal (PC) based Symmetric-Mach-Zehnder-type all-optical switch (PC-SMZ) with InAs quantum dots (QDs) acting as a nonlinear phase-shift source. The 600-μm-long PC-SMZ with integrated wavelength-selective PC-based directional couplers and other PC components exhibited a 15-ps-wide
switching-window with a 2-ps rise/fall time at a wavelength of 1.3μm. Nonlinear optical phase shift in the 500-μm-long straight PC waveguide was also achieved at sufficiently low optical-energy (e.g., π phase shift at ~100-fJ control-pulse energy) due to the small saturation energy density of the QDs, which was enhanced in the PC waveguide, without having to use conventional measures such as SOAs with current-injected gain. These results pave the way to achieving novel PC- and QD-based photonic integrated circuits including multiple PC-SMZs and other novel functional devices.
Kiyoshi Asakawa, Yoshimasa Sugimoto, H. Nakamura, Naoki Ikeda, Y. Tanaka, Y. Nakamura, S. Ohkouchi, Kozyo Kanamoto, Hiroshi Ishikawa, Y. Watanabe, K. Inoue, H. Sasaki, Koji Ishida
We have fabricated several two-dimensional photonic-crystal (2DPC) slab waveguides by using fine EB lithography and dry etching. The 2DPC waveguides include straight, bend and directional coupler on the GaAs/AlGaAs substrate as an application to the ultra-small and ultra-fast all-optical switching device (PC-SMZ). Site-controlled InAs quantum dots (QDs) responsible for nonlinear phase shift in the PC-SMZ have been investigated by developing a nano-probe assisted in-situ process. Optical linear and nonlinear properties of stacked QDs were characterized. The result exhibited the π/2 phase shift required for the SMZ-type optical switching operation. These results are capable of achieving the PC-SMZ.
We present a systematic study of coupled defects in photonic crystals (PCs) and explore their applications in constructing optical components and devices for ultrafast all-optical signal processing. First, we find that very deep band gaps can be generated in the impurity bands of coupled cavity waveguides (CCWs) by a small periodic modulation of defect modes. This phenomenon implies a high-efficiency all-optical switching mechanism. The switching mechanism can be easily extended from one-dimensional (1D) to two-dimensional and three-dimensional PC structures by utilizing the coupling of defect pairs which are generally present in PCs. Second, we suggest that CCWs with quasiflat and narrow impurity bands can be employed as efficient delay lines for ultrashort pulses. Criteria for designing such kind of CCWs have been derived from the analysis of defect coupling and the investigation of pulse transmission through various CCWs. It is found that the availability of quasiflat impurity bands depends not only on the intrinsic properties of the constituting defects but also on the detailed configuration of CCWs. In experiments, optical delay lines based on 1D monorail CCWs have been successfully fabricated and characterized. Finally, we have proposed a new mechanism for constructing waveguide intersections with broad bandwidth and low cross-talk.
Photonic crystals (PCs) having two-dimensional (2D) periodicity on a length scale of 320-450 nm were fabricated by electron beam lithography in combination with high- aspect-ratio dry etching. To achieve three-dimensional control of the optical properties, three kinds of dielectric waveguide structures based on AlGaAs heterostructures, that is, semiconductor-clad (SC), air-bridge (AB), and oxide-clad (OC) structures, were investigated. Observation of light propagating through such photonic crystal devices was employed by optical transmission measurements. Clear photonic bandgap effects resulting in 30-dB attentuation of the transmitted light could be observed in the the bandgap regions. The measured results were in good agreement with calculated band-structures and transmission spectra using a Fine-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) method. Straight, sixty degree-bent and Y-branch defect waveguides (D-WGs) in a 2D- PC slab were fabricated, and the resulting light propagation characteristics were measured by two methods. One was measurement of transmission spectra at wavelengths ranging from 850 to 1100nm. Another was plan-view observation of the optical beam race trace along the waveguide measured with an IR-vidicon camera. Three-dimensional FDTD simulations for the band structure and transmission spectra in the air- bridge slab with and without defect waveguides resulted in the appearance of four defect propagation modes specific to the defect waveguide, between two slab modes for the defect- free PC slab. As an example of the future-promising application of the 2D-PC slab, an ultra-small and ultra-fast optical switching device including quantum dots as large optical non-linearity (%chi3+S) media is proposed. To demonstrate such a device, recent advancement of a nano- probe assisted processing of arrayed quantum dots is discussed. Achievement of this technology will provide us with a possibility of extremely miniaturized all-optical switching devices in the OTDM optical communication network.
An AlGaAs-based near IR 2D photonic crystal with an air- bridge structure featuring defect waveguides has been developed. For the sample without defect waveguides, measurement of the optical transmission characteristics in the wavelength ranging form 850 nm to 1100 nm showed a deep bandgap with 30 dB to 35 dB attenuation and transmittance of nearly 100 percent. Optical propagation properties of defect waveguides were obtained by two methods: measurement of transmission spectra at wavelengths ranging from 850 to 1100 nm, and with plan-view observations of the optical beam trace along the waveguide measured with an IR-vidicon camera. 3D FDTD simulations for the band structure and transmission spectra in the air-bridge slab with and without defect waveguides resulted in the appearance of four defect propagation modes specific to the defect waveguide, between two slab modes for the defect-free photonic crystal slab. These defect modes were experimentally identified in the measured transmission spectra. Low group velocity near the band edge was also confirmed through 200-fs pulsed laser- beam propagation measurement.
This paper reviews III-V semiconductor dry etching technologies established in the past decade for miniaturizing and integrating photonic devices/components and nano-fabrication under development for creating novel photonic structures such as photonic crystal and quantum dots. After briefing the technology requirements for DWDM/OTDM-based Terabit optical communication era in 2005- 2010, advancement of the GaAs- and InP-based smooth and high-aspect-ration dry etching with micrometers -size is reviewed with some applications to dry-etched laser diodes and waveguide devices. Secondly, EB nano-lithography and dry etching technologies for 10- to 100-nm-size structures are reviewed for demonstrating photonic crystal. Challenging application to extremely miniaturized waveguide-based planar light wave circuits is included. Lastly, nano-probe assisted processing of arrayed quantum dots as a 10-nm-size structure is discussed. Achievement of suppressed size fluctuation using this technology will prov8de us with a possibility of large optical non-linearity promising for all-optical switching devices in the OTDM optical communication network system.
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