White light interferometry is a well-established optical tool for surface metrology of reflective samples. In this work, we discuss a single-shot white light interferometer based on single-chip color CCD camera and Hilbert transformation. The approach makes the measurement dynamic, faster, easier and cost-effective for industrial applications. Here we acquire only one white light interferogram using colour CCD camera and then decompose into its individual components using software. We present a simple Hilbert transformation approach to remove the non-uniform bias associated with the interference signal. The phases at individual wavelengths are calculated using Hilbert transformation. The use of Hilbert transformation introduces phase error which depends on number of fringe cycles. We discuss these errors. Experimental results on reflective micro-scale-samples for surface profiling are presented.
Single wavelength microscopic speckle interferometry is widely used for deformation, shape and non-destructive testing (NDT) of engineering structures. However the single wavelength configuration fails to quantify the large deformation due to the overcrowding of fringes and it cannot provide shape of a specimen under test. In this paper, we discuss a two wavelength microscopic speckle interferometry using single-chip colour CCD camera for characterization of microsamples. The use of colour CCD allows simultaneous acquisition of speckle patterns at two different wavelengths and thus it makes the data acquisition as simple as single wavelength case. For the quantitative measurement, an error compensating 8-step phase shifted algorithm is used. The system allows quantification of large deformation and shape of a specimen with rough surface. The design of the system along with few experimental results on small scale rough specimens is presented.
White light interferometry (WLI) is a state-of-the-art technique for high resolution full-filed 3-D surface profiling of Microsystems. However, the WLI is rather slow, because the number of frames to be recorded and evaluated is large compared to the single wavelength phase shifting interferometry. In this paper, we combine white light interferometer with a single-chip color CCD camera which makes the measurement faster, simpler, and cost-effective. The red-bluegreen (RGB) color interferogram stored in a computer is then decomposed into its individual components and corresponding phase maps for red, green, and blue components are calculated independently. The usefulness of the technique is demonstrated on reflective micro-scale-samples.
Single wavelength TV holography is a widely used whole-field noncontacting optical method for nondestructive testing (NDT) of engineering structures. However, with a single wavelength configuration, it is difficult to quantify the large amplitude defects due to the overcrowding of fringes in the defect location. In this work, we propose a two wavelength microscopic TV holography using a single-chip color charge-coupled device (CCD) camera for NDT of microspecimens. The use of a color CCD allows simultaneous acquisition of speckle patterns at two different wavelengths and makes the data acquisition as simple as that of the single wavelength case. For the quantitative measurement of the defect, an error compensating eight-step phase-shifted algorithm is used. The design of the system and a few experimental results on small-scale rough specimens are presented.
KEYWORDS: Digital signal processing, Speckle, Digital photography, Microsystems, Interferometers, Mirrors, Phase shifts, Digital filtering, Photography, Fringe analysis
Microscopic TV holography (MTVH) is widely used for out-of-plane deformation and 3-D surface profile
characterization of microsystems. However, the problem of overcrowding of fringes shows up when deformations are
large, making quantitative fringe analysis difficult. In this paper, we introduce the use of microscopic TV sherography
(MTVS) for microsystems characterization so that under relatively large out-of-plane deformation the slope of
deformation is measured, rather than the deformation itself. The optical arrangement consists of a zoom imaging system
with a conventional Michelson shear interferometer. We use the digital speckle photography (DSP) technique for precise
measurement of magnitude of the lateral shear introduced between the two sheared images.
Interferometric surface profilers using a single wavelength offer excellent vertical resolution, but have an ambiguity-free range of less than half a wavelength. Multiple-wavelength or white light interference techniques are used to overcome the problem. We discuss a three-wavelength interferometric technique used with a phase-shifting phase evaluation procedure. The phase evaluation at the three wavelengths gives wrapped phase at any pixel corresponding to these wavelengths. We use the fact that the variation of phase with wavenumber for a given profile height is linear to determine the absolute value of the profile height. The height is then used to ascertain the fringe order. The fringe order, along with the wrapped phase, gives the profile height with a resolution given by the phase-shifting technique. Experimental results for large step height measurement on etched silicon samples are presented.
Characterization of deformation and surface shape is an important parameter in quality testing of micro-objects in view of the functionality, reliability, and integrity of the components. Single-wavelength TV holography is widely used for deformation analysis. However, the single-wavelength TV holographic configuration suffers from overcrowding of fringes for large deformation that sets a limitation due to speckle decorrelation for quantitative fringe analysis. Furthermore, shape cannot be determined when using single wavelength. In this paper, we describe a multiple-wavelength microscopic TV holographic configuration that uses sequentially recorded phase-shifted frames at three different wavelengths before and after deformation of the specimen for evaluation of relatively large deformation fields at the effective wavelengths. Use of multiple wavelengths for deformation and shape evaluation is discussed. The design of the system along with the experimental results on small-scale rough specimens under static load is presented.
Microscopic TV holography is a reliable and versatile non-contact optical technique for whole-field deformation
measurements with interferometric sensitivity for many micro-metrology applications. The technique is based on
digital speckle interferometric subtraction correlation. Characterization of deformation and surface shape is an
important parameter in quality testing of micro objects related to functionality, reliability and integrity of the
components. Single wavelength TV holography is used widely for deformation analysis. However the single
wavelength TV holographic configuration suffers from overcrowding of fringes for large deformation that sets in
limitation due to speckle de-correlation for quantitative fringe analysis. In this paper, we describe a multiple
wavelength microscopic TV holographic configuration that uses sequentially recorded phase shifted frames at
three different wavelengths before and after deformation of the specimen for evaluation of relatively large
deformation fields at effective wavelengths. Use of multiple wavelengths for deformation and shape evaluation is
also discussed. The design of the system along with few experimental results on small scale rough specimens
Interferometry is a well established technique for surface profiling. The conventional interferometric surface
profilers using a single wavelength offer excellent vertical resolution, but a serious limitation to their use is that
they can only handle smooth profiles and step heights less than half a wavelength. In the situation where the
surface profile is discontinuous, white light interferometry has been applied with great success. However the
scanning white light interferometry requires large number of frames to be recorded, whereas in spectrally
resolved white light interferometry only a line profile of the object is obtained, although the requirement on
number of frames is similar to the single wavelength phase shifting interferometry. In this paper we discuss three
wavelength interferometry in which a limited number of frames suitable for phase shifting technique are recorded
at three laser wavelengths. The phase evaluation at the three wavelengths gives wrapped phase at any pixel
corresponding to these wavelengths. The fringe order is obtained considering the fact the variation of phase with
wavenumber for a given profile height is linear. The slope of the phase verses wavenumber line gives the absolute
value of the profile height and is used to ascertain the fringe order. The fringe order along with the wrapped phase
gives the profile height with a resolution given by phase shifting technique. Experimental results on etched silicon
samples are presented.
Transmission properties of a novel optical waveguide structure based on Nafion polymer are investigated
by the technique of the m-line spectroscopy at a wavelength of 632.8nm. The refractive index profiles for
Nafion film for both TE and TM modes are found to be of quadratic nature with surface refractive indices
values of 1.3408 and 1.3446 respectively. The attenuation loss of this polymeric waveguide is found to be 1.53 dBcm-1
Digital speckle pattern interferometry (DSPI) and digital shearography (DS) are two independent whole-field non-contacting
optical methods for nondestructive flaw detection and precision measurements. A multi-aperture arrangement
in front the imaging lens provides the grid structure within the speckles to yield desired diffraction halos at the Fourier
transform plane. A three aperture arrangement in front of the imaging system is proposed here to combine coherently
three waves at the CCD plane and also to introduce spatial carrier fringes within the speckle. One of the apertures is used
for imaging the object onto the CCD plane, the second aperture for introducing smooth reference wave, while the third
aperture carries a small angle wedge plate to provide the shear. This method allows simultaneous phase evaluation of the
out-of-plane displacement and its first order derivative (slope) by filtering the appropriate diffraction halos of the Fourier
spectrum. In this paper, we describe a (1, N) phase shifting technique with fast Fourier transform (FFT) for non
destructive evaluation (NDE) of quasi-dynamic behavior of objects subject to slowly varying loads. The prominent
advantage of the technique is that, it requires only a single frame prior to the object deformation and N number of frames
during the object deformation for NDE. Experimental results are presented on a honeycomb structure subjected to
thermal load.
Digital speckle pattern interferometry (DSPI) and digital shearography (DS) are two independent useful whole-field noncontacting optical methods for nondestructive flaw detection and precision measurements. We describe a (1,N) spatial phase-shifting technique in DSPI and DS for nondestructive evaluation (NDE) of quasidynamic behavior of objects subject to slowly varying loads. The technique employs a double-aperture arrangement in front of the imaging system to introduce spatial carrier fringes within the speckle. The prominent advantage of the proposed technique is it requires only a single frame prior to the object deformation and a number N of frames during the object deformation for NDE. Quantitative measurement of a defect and its behavior in loading conditions are studied by recording spatially phase shifted frames before and during thermal stressing of the object for continuous deformation variation with time. Experimental results on a polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) panel using an error-compensating five-phase-step algorithm for quantitative NDE using both DSPI and DS are demonstrated.
Polarization components can be used as nearly achromatic phase shifters in an interferometers. Here wepresent
an improved achromatic half-wave plate (HWP) phase shifter that can be incorporated at the input end of a white light
interferometer. A nearly achromatic HWP phase shifter that can be used at the input of an interferometer consists of a
rotating HWP followed by a quarter wave plate (QWP) fixed at an azimuth of 45°. An improved achromatic phase
shifter for the input end can be constructed using achromatic circular polarizers. The performance of this achromatic
HWP phase shifter when used at the input end of a white light interferometer is studied using Jones calculus. The
calculated values of the phase shifts between the interfering beams and their amplitudes are very nearly same for all the
wavelengths. This phase shifter thus gives much improved performance.
A digital speckle shear pattern interferometer using a cyclic-path shear arrangement with a polarization phase-shifting method for the deformation-derivative measurement is presented. The cyclic-path arrangement, being a common path, improves the stability of the system. The proposed arrangement can be used to obtain the lateral as well as the radial slope contours. Experimental results on a centrally loaded diaphragm with its edge rigidly clamped, in lateral and radial speckle shear configurations, are presented.
Digital speckle pattern interferometry (DSPI) and digital shearography (DS) are full field, non-contact optical methods for deformation or its derivative measurement. These techniques are also well suited for the measurement of vibrations. For the present work we use a dual-function DSPI system for the visualization of resonance frequencies and their mode shapes. The system is convenient and also efficient to switch over from an out-of-plane sensitive configuration to shearography. A time-average technique using a refreshing reference frame used for better visualization of the modes. The technique suppresses ambient disturbances such as thermal noise and low freq. noise, etc so that measurement can be performed under harsh environmental condition. Vibration mode shapes are investigated for objects vibrating sinusoidally at different resonant frequencies, for both out-of-plane and shearography configurations.
Spectrally resolved white-light phase-shifting interferometry has been used for accurate measurements of the spectral phase of the wave reflected from a micromachined surface. The phase is linearly related to the wave number, and the slope of the graph of the phase vs. the wave number, for any point on the test surface, gives the absolute value of the optical path difference at this point. These values can be used to generate a line profile of the test surface. However, if the test surface is coated with a transparent thin film, multiple reflections affect the phase of the reflected wave. The values obtained for the phase then depend on the thickness and the refractive index of the film and exhibit an additional nonlinear variation with the wave number, which can be modeled using thin-film theory. We show that this additional nonlinear phase can be measured directly using spectrally resolved white-light interferometry. The thickness profile of the film can then be obtained by a least-squares fit to the experimental phase data.
Scanning White Light Interferometry (SWLI) is a tool for measuring discontinuous surface profile. A short coherence length white light source is used in the interferometer so that the fringes are localized in the vicinity of zero Optical Path Difference (OPD). The object surface is scanned along the height axis to get the height variation over the object field. Another technique using white light is Spectrally Resolved White Light Interferometry (SRWLI) in which the white light interferogram is spectrally decomposed by a spectrometer. The interferogram displayed at the exit plane of the spectrometer has a continuous variation of wavelength along the chromaticity axis. This interferogram encodes the phase as a function of wave number. For a given OPD, the phase is different for different spectral component of the source. The OPD can be determined as the slope of the phase versus wave number linear fit. To determine the phase of the different spectral components, temporal phase shifting technique which typically uses five frames has been proposed. Since the OPD is related to the height of the test object at a point, a line profile of the object can be determined. In this paper we discuss the Hilbert Transform method for determination of phase in SRWLI. This procedure requires only one spectrally resolved white light interferogram.
In applications of surface profilometry with white light interferometry (WLI), the detection of the peak of the fringe contrast function is of prime importance. Several procedures have been proposed for the determination of the fringe contrast function. Fourier transform technique and phase shifting technique are two important methods. In the Fourier transform technique, the interference pattern is scanned to obtain the interference signal which is then subjected to filtering in the frequency domain. This involves two discrete Fourier transform operations. The phase shifting technique makes use of the algorithms introduced in the monochromatic interferometry for the calculation of the fringe contrast function. Both PZT and polarization phase shifters are proposed to be used for WLI. In this paper, it will be shown that polarization phase shifter offers some advantages over PZT phase shifter.
In Spectrally Resolved White Light Interferometry (SRWLI), the white light interferogram is spectrally decomposed by a spectrometer. The interferogram displayed at the exit plane of the spectrometer has a continuous variation of wavelength along the chromaticity axis. This interferogram encodes the phase as a function of wave number. The optical phase is determined at several wavelengths simultaneously to get the surface profile. For a given optical path difference (OPD), the phase is different for different spectral component of the source. The absolute value of OPD can be determined as the slope of the phase versus wave number linear fit. Scanned over the test surface, this OPD gives an unambiguous surface profile. This profile can be improved by the monochromatic phase data which is already available from the measurement. Combining monochromatic phase data which has 2π ambiguity with the slope data a precise profile of the surface is obtained. Noisy data however leads to the misidentification of fringe order which gives unnecessary jumps in the profile. This paper addresses this problem.
A white light interferogram can be decomposed into its constituent monochromatic interferograms using a spectrograph. By imaging the white light interferogram on the entrance slit of the spectrograph, the intensities of the monochromatic components can be accessed at its output plane by the pixels of a CCD detector along the direction of dispersion. For a given optical path difference (OPD) in the interferometer, the phases of these constituents are different and linearly related to the wave number of the constituent spectral component. If the phases of all the constituents are determined, the OPD can be obtained as the slope of the phase versus wave number linear fit. Since the OPD is related to the height of the test object at a point, a line profile of the object can be determined if the OPD is measured along the pixels of the CCD parallel to the entrance slit of the spectrograph. To get at the line profile, we must therefore determine the optical phase at all the pixels of the CCD detector. The phase-shifting technique is an obvious choice for this. A piezoelectric transducer (PZT) phase shifter is most common in the application of the phase-shifting technique to monochromatic interferometry. We present the experimental result based on our recent proposal that the conventional PZT phase shifting, although nonachromatic, can be used for this application as well with success.
We describe a spectrally resolved white light interferometer with polarization phase shifter for use in surface profiling. Phase shifting is introduced by a rotating half- wave plate. The phase shifted intensity values needed for the phase calculation at each pixel are obtained from the same pixel instead of different pixels, thereby avoiding error due to variation in sensitivities of different pixels.
Multiple wavelength interferometry is used to increase the range of unambiguity beyond that of single wavelength interferometry. In wavelength scanning interferometry, the frequency of the intensity modulation induced by the wavelength change is determined independently for each image pixel. The tuning range determines the resolution of measurements, while the tuning step limits the range of the measurements. Laser diodes can be tuned, but an external cavity is needed for a larger mode hop free wavelength variation. Polished and optically rough surfaces can be analyzed in the same manner. Acquisition times of a few seconds and high resolutions were obtained. In a new development, the application of temporal evaluation of speckles for deformation and shape measurement will be discussed. It turns out that spectral and temporal phase analysis can be very useful for many applications in optical metrology.
Photorefractive beam coupling in barium titanate crystals is characterized experimentally by measuring the signal beam gain and the exponential gain coefficient at 440 nm, 632.8 nm and 780 nm. The figure of merit parameters such as the change in refractive index, the space charge field and the trap density are estimated using Kukhtarev's theory. A comparative study at multiple wavelengths is presented. The signal beam gain is found to be maximum at 440 nm.
The plane parallel plate (PPP) and wedge plate (WP) interferometers are the simplest configurations for collimation testing. These elements are usually used in reflection due to high fringe visibility. The reflection coated wedge plate acting as a shearing interferometer both in reflection and transmission is recently reported. This multiple beam wedge plate lateral shear interferometer (MBWPLSI) used for collimation testing gives superior performance compared to an uncoated wedge plate interferometer. In this paper, some aspects of the multiple beam interferometer and its use in the double pass configuration are presented. Double pass results in a system of fringes in which adjacent fringes rotate and split in opposite directions for a non-collimated beam resulting in further improvement in the setting sensitivity.
Self-referencing collimation testing techniques are briefly reviewed. New self-referencing configurations using Talbot and doublewedge plate shear interferometric techniques are described. Setting sensitivities of various arrangements are compared.
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