Water vapor and temperature spatial distribution and their temporal evolution are among the most important parameters in numerical weather forecasting and climate models. The operational relative humidity/temperature profiling in meteorology is carried out mostly by radio sondes. Sondes provide profiles with high vertical resolution but suffer from systematic errors and low temporal resolution. The temporal resolution is also a limitation for the now-casting, which has become more and more important for meteorological alerts and for the aviation. Recently, some of national meteorological services have introduced Raman lidars for additional operational humidity/temperature profiling. The lidars allow monitoring of water vapor mixing ratio and temperature with high vertical and temporal resolutions. Here the design and measurement results from the Raman Lidar for Meteorological Observation (RALMO) developed by the Ecole Polytechnique Féderal de Lausanne (EPFL) and operated by MeteoSwiss is presented as an illustration of the potential of Raman lidars in operational meteorology. The first applications of lidar data in numerical weather forecasting is also discussed.
A new method for calibration of water vapor Raman lidars based on first principles is proposed. The calibration constant
of a Raman lidar is derived from a set of water vapor and nitrogen Raman backscatter signals measured with the lidar
receiver in a cell filled with reference humidity mixture. The reference humidity mixture is prepared gravimetrically. The
water vapor mixing ratio is calculated directly as ratio of the mass of water to the mass of air or nitrogen. Since mass is a
fundamental quantity, this method yields an absolute value of water vapor mixing ratio which translates to the lidar
calibration constant.
The water vapor profile derived from Raman lidar measurements is obtained by taking the ratio of water vapor and nitrogen Raman-shifted signals. The proportionality factor that converts the signal ratio to water vapor/air mixing ratio is referred to as lidar calibration constant. The calibration constant depends on the water vapor and nitrogen Raman cross sections and on the efficiencies of the respective Raman channels including the photomultiplier tube (PMT) efficiency. Unequal, gradual changes in the PMTs efficiencies due to fatigue effects may lead to gradual alteration of the calibration constant. Such an effect has been observed during the seven- year continuous operation of the RAman Lidar for Moisture Observations (RALMO)1 . A more detailed research2 , has shown that the calibration constant change is more pronounced during summer time probably due to the higher light exposure. Periodical recalibration of the lidar with radiosonde measurements is used to correct the calibration constant. This approach, however, induces additional systematic errors due to the nature of the calibration procedure and the dispersion of the radiosonde parameters. We present a new, instrumental method for automated correction of the calibration constant. By this method, a correction factor is deduced from the ratio of the signals of the two photomultipliers which are illuminated simultaneously by a single, stabilized UV-LED light source. The LED light is delivered to the photomultipliers by a set of additional mirrors and a beam splitter installed inside the grating polychromator used to separate the Raman signals. The correction measurements are taken before midnight. To minimize the data loss, the lidar’s laser is operated during the measurements and a shatter at the polychromator entrance is used to block any atmospheric signals. The use of stabilized light source also allows evaluating the individual photomultipliers aging rates, essential for the instrument maintenance.
EARLINET, the European Aerosol Research Lidar NETwork, established in 2000, is the first coordinated lidar network
for tropospheric aerosol study on the continental scale. The network activity is based on scheduled measurements, a rigorous quality assurance program addressing both instruments and evaluation algorithms, and a standardised data
exchange format. At present, the network includes 27 lidar stations distributed over Europe.
EARLINET performed almost continuous measurements since 15 April 2010 in order to follow the evolution of the
volcanic plume generated from the eruption of the Eyjafjallajökull volcano, providing the 4-dimensional distribution of
the volcanic ash plume over Europe. During the 15-30 April period, volcanic particles were detected over Central Europe
over a wide range of altitudes, from 10 km down to the local planetary boundary layer (PBL). Until 19 April, the
volcanic plume transport toward South Europe was nearly completely blocked by the Alps. After 19 April volcanic
particles were transported to the south and the southeast of Europe. Descending aerosol layers were typically observed
all over Europe and intrusion of particles into the PBL was observed at almost each lidar site that was affected by the
volcanic plume. A second event was observed over Portugal and Spain (6 May) and then over Italy on 9 May 2010. The
volcanic plume was then observed again over Southern Germany on 11 May 2010.
Coordinated lidar observations of Saharan dust over Europe are performed in the frame of the EARLINET-ASOS
(2006-2011) project, which comprises 25 stations: 16 Raman lidar stations, including 8 multi-wavelength
(3+2 station) Raman lidar stations, are used to retrieve the aerosol microphysical properties. Since
the launch of CALIOP, the two-wavelength lidar on board the CALIPSO satellite (June 2006) our lidar
network has been performing correlative aerosol measurements during CALIPSO overpasses over the
individual stations. In our presentation, we report on the correlative measurements obtained during Saharan
dust intrusions in the period from June 2006 to June 2008. We found that the number of dust events is
generally greatest in late spring, summer and early autumn periods, mainly in southern and south-eastern
Europe. A measurement example is presented that was analyzed to show the potential of a ground based lidar
network to follow a dust event over a specific study area, in correlation with the CALIOP measurements. The
dust transport over the studied area was simulated by the DREAM forecast model. Cross-section analyses of
CALIOP over the study area were used to assess the model performance for describing and forecasting the
vertical and horizontal distribution of the dust field over the Mediterranean. Our preliminary results can be
used to reveal the importance of the synergy between the CALIOP measurement and the dust model, assisted
by ground-based lidars, for clarifying the overall transport of dust over the European continent.
KEYWORDS: Quantum cascade lasers, Signal detection, Data transmission, Mid-IR, Aerosols, Frequency modulation, Free space optics, Modulation, Air contamination, Transmitters
We report on an application of a pulsed distributed feedback quantum cascade laser (QCL) for an open path data
transmission. A pulse QCL in the 1046 cm-1 range (28.7 THz) is used as a carrier signal source. The QCL is modulated
with 50 ns pulses at repetition rate of 100 kHz, used as a sub-carrier. This sub-carrier is frequency modulated with a low
frequency signal with bandwidth of 20 kHz (high quality sound signal).
Data transmission experiments over 6 km open path were successfully completed. Pulse frequency modulation (PFM)
technique instead of the usually used amplitude modulation was chosen because of its high immunity against amplitude
noise and amplitude instabilities caused by atmospheric turbulence and aerosols. The quality of the demodulated signal is
good enough, characterized by low distortion, low noise, high dynamic range and wide frequency band, even for
detected signal variation of more than thousand times.
The haze immunity of the Mid IR communication channel was studied in a laboratory and in a real open path conditions.
The QCL beam was transmitted through a 60 cm cell, filled with water aerosol with high optical density in the visible.
Despite the high aerosol optical density, sufficient to suppress completely a probe 20 mW 532 nm beam at a 5 cm
distance, no distortion in the IR transmission was observed passing full 60 cm. The real 6 km open path transmission in a
fog confirms the high haze immunity of IR beam propagation. The distance could be increased up to a few tens of
kilometers. The bandwidth can be increased significantly up to a MHz range using a higher sub-carrier or up to a GHz
range performing a direct frequency modulation of the laser frequency using CW QCL.
The present knowledge of the aerosol distribution is not sufficient to estimate the aerosol influence on global and
regional environmental conditions and climate. This observational gap can be closed by using advanced laser remote
sensing. EARLINET (European Aerosol Research Lidar Network) is the first aerosol lidar network, established in 2000,
with the main goal to provide a comprehensive, quantitative, and statistically significant database for the aerosol
distribution on a continental scale. EARLINET is a coordinated network of European stations (25 at present) using advanced lidar methods for the vertical profiling of aerosols. The network activity is based on simultaneous scheduled
measurements, a rigorous quality assurance program addressing both instruments and evaluation algorithms, and a
standardised data exchange format. Further observations are performed to monitor special events.
EARLINET-ASOS (Advanced Sustainable Observation System) is a five year EC Project started in 2006, based on the
EARLINET infrastructure. The main objectives are: to make EARLINET a world-leading instrument for the observation
of the 4-D aerosol distribution on continental scale; to foster aerosol-related process studies, validation of satellite
sensors, model development and validation, assimilation of aerosol data into operational models; and to build a
comprehensive climatology of the aerosol distribution.
The European Aerosol Research Lidar Network (EARLINET) was established in 2000 to derive a comprehensive, quantitative, and statistically significant data base for the aerosol distribution on the European scale.
At present, EARLINET consists of 25 stations: 16 Raman lidar stations, including 8 multi-wavelength Raman lidar stations which are used to retrieve aerosol microphysical properties.
EARLINET performs a rigorous quality assurance program for instruments and evaluation algorithms. All stations measure simultaneously on a predefined schedule at three dates per week to obtain unbiased data for climatological studies.
Since June 2006 the first backscatter lidar is operational aboard the CALIPSO satellite. EARLINET represents an excellent tool to validate CALIPSO lidar data on a continental scale. Aerosol extinction and lidar ratio measurements provided by the network will be particularly important for that validation.
The measurement strategy of EARLINET is as follows: Measurements are performed at all stations within 80 km from the overpasses and additionally at the lidar station which is closest to the actually overpassed site. If a multi-wavelength Raman lidar station is overpassed then also the next closest 3+2 station performs a measurement.
Altogether we performed more than 1000 correlative observations for CALIPSO between June 2006 and June 2007.
Direct intercomparisons between CALIPSO profiles and attenuated backscatter profiles obtained by EARLINET lidars look very promising.
Two measurement examples are used to discuss the potential of multi-wavelength Raman lidar observations for the validation and optimization of the CALIOP Scene Classification Algorithm.
Correlative observations with multi-wavelength Raman lidars provide also the data base for a harmonization of the CALIPSO aerosol data and the data collected in future ESA lidar-in-space missions.
EARLINET-ASOS (European Aerosol Research Lidar Network - Advanced Sustainable Observation System) is a 5-year EC Project started in 2006. Based on the EARLINET infrastructure, it will provide appropriate tools to improve the quality and availability of the continuous observations. The EARLINET multi-year continental scale data set is an excellent instrument to assess the impact of aerosols on the European and global environment and to support future satellite missions. The project is addressed in optimizing instruments and algorithms existing within EARLINET-ASOS, exchanging expertise, with the main goal to build a database with high quality aerosol data. In particular, the optimization of the algorithms for the retrieval of the aerosol optical and microphysical properties is a crucial activity. The main objective is to provide all partners with the possibility to use a common processing chain for the evaluation of their data, from raw signals to final products. Raw signals may come from different types of systems, and final products are profiles of optical properties, like backscatter and extinction, and, if the instrument properties permit, of microphysical properties. This will have a strong impact on the scientific community because data with homogeneous well characterized quality will be made available in nearly real time.
We report on application of a distributed feedback (DFB) quantum cascade laser (QCL) for open path spectroscopic
monitoring of ozone, water vapor, CO2 and air temperature. The thermal chirp during a 400 ns long laser pulse at
repetition rate of 1 kHz is used for fast wavelength scanning of two water vapor absorption lines, few O3 lines and a CO2
line, centered at 1032 cm-1. A tuning range of 1.7 cm-1 is achieved. The fast wavelength scanning of the QCL has the
advantage of not being affected by atmospheric turbulence, which is essential for long open path measurements. A direct
absorption method was adopted in the measurements. Monostatic experimental setup, consisting of a QCL, a
retroreflector and a detector is employed. The lowest detection limit for ozone is about 0.2 ppb at 6 km open path. The
relative humidity measurements sensitivity depends on the temperature and at 293 K is about 1%. The resolution of the
temperature measurements is better than 0.5 K. The column densities and temperature retrieved from the transmittance
spectra are obtained, performing averaging of 10 seconds, which is much shorter, compare to other open path techniques.
We have demonstrated a possibility for a spatial resolved open path spectroscopy using pulsed quantum cascade laser
(QCL). Using a pulsed light source, as a QCL, and a few retroreflectors placed at different distances, allows splitting the
distance of interest to a few parts. Each retroreflector reflects a fraction of the energy back and reflected signals reach the
detector with different delays. Using the retroreflectors with increasing sizes allows keeping the amplitudes of the
received signals almost constant, independently of the distance. The spatial resolution &Dgr;l is proportional to the pulse
length &Dgr;t and is given from the same equation used in LIDAR techniques. The thermal chirp during the relatively long
laser pulse is used for fast wavelength scanning. The latter has the advantage of not being affected by atmospheric
turbulence, which is essential for long open path measurements. 200 ns pulse duration was used to achieve a 30 m spatial
resolution. The latter is even better than urban areas mesoscale modeling requires. At the same time, the tuning range is
about 0.8 cm-1, which is sufficient to scan one or even several absorption lines at normal atmospheric pressure.
EARLINET, the European Aerosol Research Lidar Network, is the first aerosol lidar network, established in 2000, with the main goal to provide a comprehensive, quantitative, and statistically significant data base for the aerosol distribution on a continental scale. At present, 23 stations distributed over Europe are part of the network. The EARLINET-ASOS (Advanced Sustainable Observation System) EC Project, starting on the EARLINET infrastructure, will contribute to the improvement of continuing observations and methodological developments that are urgently needed to provide the multi-year continental scale data set necessary to assess the impact of aerosols on the European and global environment and to support future satellite missions. The main objective of EARLINET-ASOS 5-year project, started on 1 March 2006, is to improve the EARLINET infrastructure resulting in a better spatial and temporal coverage of the observations, continuous quality control for the complete observation system, and fast availability of standardized data products. This will be reached by defining and using common standards for instruments, operation procedures, observation schemes, data processing including advanced retrieval algorithms, and dissemination of data. The expected outcome is the most comprehensive data source for the 4-D spatio-temporal distribution of aerosols on a continental scale.
We present the design and preliminary results of a water vapor Raman lidar, developed explicitly for meteorological applications. The lidar was designed for Meteoswiss as a fully automated, eye-safe instrument for routine water vapor measurements in the troposphere. The lidar is capable of day and nighttime vertical profiling of the tropospheric water vapor with 15 to 30 min temporal resolution. The daytime operation is achieved by decreasing the solar background employing the narrow field-of-view, narrow-band technique. The daytime vertical operational range exceeds 4 km, while the nighttime range is above 7.5 km. The lidar receiver is built on a compact multi-telescope configuration coupled with fibers to a grating polychromator used for spectral separation and partial background suppression. An additional "near range" fiber in one of the telescopes increases the signal level in the near range and allows water vapor retrieval starting from 100 m. The water vapor mixing ratio is retrieved using the ratio of the water vapor and the nitrogen Raman signals. An additional detection channel for oxygen Raman signal is used for aerosol correction.
Ozone and aerosol vertical distribution and their time evolution were measured with a combined UV DIAL / 532-nm elastic lidar during the MCMA 2003 field campaign held in April-May 2003 in Mexico City Metropolitan Area (MCMA). The DIAL transmitter is based on a N2 Raman converter, pumped by the IVth harmonic of a Nd:YAG laser. The residual second harmonic radiation from the laser is used for aerosol measurements. In the DIAL part of the receiver a dual-telescope configuration ("Long" and "Short" range) is employed to reduce the dynamic range of the signals and a single 20 cm F/4 Newtonian type telescope is used for the aerosol observations at 532 nm. The DIAL wavelengths are transmitted coaxially to the long range telescope and the 532 nm beam is transmitted coaxially to the "aerosol" telescope. The DIAL receiver is equipped with a grating polychromator for spectral separation and the 532 nm receiver uses a narrowband (0.4 nm) interference filter. "Hamamatsu" 5783-06 photosensor modules detect all signals. Ozone concentration was measured to altitudes of up to 6 km AGL and aerosol to 14 km AGL. The height of the PBL was estimated from the aerosol measurements. The diurnal evolution of the PBL and ozone were studied during the campaign. Formation of a residual layer containing elevated ozone concentrations at nighttime, as well as detachment of the PBL in the late afternoon hours were observed.
A new generation Raman LIDAR system is developed for high spatial (1.5 m) and temporal (1 s) resolution humidity and temperature measurements in the lower atmosphere. A multi-telescope array is used so that a near constant LIDAR signal is obtained from 10 m out to 500 m. The system is operated in the solar blind spectral region and corrected for ozone and aerosol influences. A prism polychromator system allows for the separation of the rotational-vibrational Raman bands of water vapor, nitrogen, and oxygen molecules with 'high spectral purity' with a throughput efficiency of greater than 90 %. This LIDAR system will ultimately be used to study the structure of the lower atmosphere over complex terrain and in particular advance our understanding of turbulent blending mechanisms in the unstable atmosphere.
We report the application of a pulsed distributed feedback (DFB) quantum cascade laser (QCL) for a 6 km long open path spectroscopic monitoring of ozone, ammonia, water vapor and carbon dioxide. The thermal chirp during a 200 ns long excitation pulse is used for fast wavelength scanning of about 1 cm-1 in the spectral range 1043-1049 cm-1. This tuning method has the advantage of not being affected by the atmospheric turbulence, which is essential for long open path measurements. The intrinsic haze immunity of mid IR laser sources is an additional important advantage of mid-IR open path spectroscopy, compared with standard UV-visible DOAS. The third major advantage of the method reported is the possibility to measure many more organic and inorganic atmospheric species compared to the UV-visible DOAS. The obtained sensitivity for ozone and ammonia of the order of 10 ppm.m retrieved from the absorption spectra for averaging times less than 1 min are comparable with teh UV DOAS values. The open path of 6 km is covered using average laser power of less than 0.2 mW, which shows much higher efficiency of spectroscopy using narrowband laser source, compared to broadband light as Xe lamp.
KEYWORDS: Quantum cascade lasers, Data transmission, Signal detection, Mid-IR, Aerosols, Frequency modulation, Air contamination, Amplitude modulation, Transmitters, Mirrors
We report on the application of a pulse distributed feedback (DFB) quantum cascade laser (QCL) for open path data transmission. A not cryogenically cooled, pulse QCL in the 1046 cm-1 range is used. The pulse repetition rate is 100 kHz. In the experiments, the current pulses, driving the laser, are modulated with a low frequency signal. Data transmission over 460 m and 6 km open path were successfully performed. Pulse frequency modulation technique instead of the usual amplitude modulation was chosen because of its high immunity against amplitude noise and signal amplitude changes caused by atmospheric turbulence and aerosols. The demodulated signal is characterized by low distortion, low noise, high dynamic range and wide frequency bandwidth, even for detected laser power variation of more than a thousand times. The haze immunity of the Mid Ir communication channel was studied. Despite the high aerosol optical density, siffucient to suppress completely a probe 20 mW 532 nm beam at a 5 cm distance, no distortion in the IR transmission was observed. In that way the high haze immunity of the mid IR data transmission was demonstrated.
A new lidar for the measurement of tropospheric ozone is proposed, based on the differential analysis of the Raman backscattered signals on nitrogen and oxygen, which is far less sensitive to the aerosols than the classical DIAL system. Using a third Raman channel, the system is able to measure the water vapor mixing ratio simultaneously. The transmitting section of the instrument is composed of a single wavelength at 266 nm, generated by a quadrupled Nd:YAG laser, while the receiving section is the combination of a 20 cm Newton telescope, a polychromator, custom made band pass filters and miniature photomultiplier, giving a compact and efficient optical layout. The cross-talk between the different channels, and the rejection of the 266 nm wavelength have been measured in detail and will be presented. Time series of ozone and water vapor vertical profile during some days have been performed in the early spring 99.
A configuration of a UV ozone DIfferential Absorption Lidar (DIAL) based on a single cell filled with two Raman active gases has been developed. The cell is filled with a mixture of hydrogen and deuterium as active gases and argon as a buffer gas. The cell is pumped with the fourth harmonic of a Nd:YAG laser. The partial pressures of the gases are chosen to achieve even energy for the first Stokes of hydrogen (299 nm) and deuterium (289 nm), which are used as DIAL wavelengths. The ON and OFF beams, produced in this way, have identical spatial intensity distribution, identical temporal power profiles and the ability to probe the same air volume at the same time, which contributes to the decrease of systematic errors. Special care is taken to diminish the negative influence of the crosstalk between channels in the receiving part and the spatial nonuniformity of the receiving photosensors. Lidar measurements of tropospheric ozone concentration with vertical resolution ranging from 15 to 150 m and distances from 200 to 1200 m are performed. The results are compared with ground based punctual measurements and with DIAL measurements from a system with two Raman cells.
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