Dr. W. Joseph Thomes Profile

Dr. W. Joseph Thomes

at NASA Goddard Space Flight Ctr

SPIE Involvement:

Author

Area of Expertise:

Photonics , Fiber Optics , Lasers , Spaceflight

Publications (33)

Proceedings Article | 19 July 2024 Presentation

Performance characterization of the iLocater spectrograph

Jonathan Crass, Michael Engelman, Brian Sands, Daniel Pappalardo, Marshall Johnson, Richard Pogge, Justin Crepp, Jeffrey Kruk, Christian Schwab, Jacob Pember, Jerry Mason, Hali Jakeman Flores, Joseph Thomes

Proceedings Volume 13096, 130961E (2024) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.3020556

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Proceedings Article | 12 March 2024 Presentation + Paper

Performance of the dragonfly mass spectrometer (DraMS) programmable UV laser source engineering test unit (ETU)

Matthew Mullin, D. Barry Coyle, Paul Stysley, Melissa Trainer, Michael Hersh, Bryan James, Erich Frese, Timothy Petry, Amandeep Kaur, William Halaburda, Draisy Friedman, Guruthisvaran Ramu, Kristen Washington, W. Joe Thomes, Eric Lyness, Juan Lander, M. Akif Ersahin, Pete Mule, Sandra Irish, Daniel Bae, Peter Barfknecht, Kevin Smith, Marc Matyseck, Jackie Bartel, Keith Kienzle, Laurie Seide, Richard Chuska, Christian Zincke, Raymond Disilvestre

Proceedings Volume 12864, 1286409 (2024) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.3009989

KEYWORDS: Ultraviolet radiation, Semiconductor lasers, Laser energy, Pulsed laser operation, Laser optics, Equipment, Vibration, Spectroscopy, Laser development, Laser systems engineering

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Proceedings Article | 8 March 2023 Presentation + Paper

Technology development of a solid state 266 nm laser for NASA’s Dragonfly mission

Matthew Mullin, D. Barry Coyle, Paul Stysley, Melissa Trainer, Michael Hersh, Bryan James, Erich Frese, Guruthisvaran Ramu, Kristen Washington, W. Joe Thomes, Eric Lyness, Juan Lander, M. Akif Ersahin, Pete Mule, Daniel Bae, Peter Barfknecht, Kevin Smith, Marc Matyseck, Timothy Petry, Amandeep Kaur, William Halaburda, Jackie Bartel, Keith Kienzle, Alejandro Rodriguez Perez, Jean-Marie Lauenstein, Richard Chuska

Proceedings Volume 12399, 123990E (2023) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2650805

KEYWORDS: Semiconductor lasers, Ultraviolet radiation, Vibration, UV optics, Atmospheric optics, Laser optics, Spectroscopy, Laser radiation, Equipment, Pulsed laser operation

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Proceedings Article | 3 October 2022 Paper

PACE OCI short-wave infrared detection assembly optical system design, alignment, and environmental test

James Champagne, Dallin Brailsford, Roy Esplin, Jacob Hedelius, Trent Newswander, James Peterson, Tyrel Rupp, Kenneth Squire, Eric Gorman, Emily Kan, D. Brent Mott, Luis Ramos-Izquierdo, Joe Thomes, Ulrik Gliese

Proceedings Volume 12222, 1222204 (2022) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2633631

KEYWORDS: Sensors, Optical alignment, Geometrical optics, Optical design, Ocean optics, Channel projecting optics, Tolerancing, Signal detection, Optical filters, Short wave infrared radiation

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Proceedings Article | 2 March 2020 Paper

Space-flight LiDARs, navigation, and science instrument implementations: lasers, optoelectronics, integrated photonics, fiber optic subsystems, and components

Melanie Ott, Cameron Parvini, Hali Jakeman, W. Joe Thomes, Eleanya Onuma

Proceedings Volume 11287, 112870I (2020) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2547352

KEYWORDS: Photonics, Cryogenics, Sensors, Light emitting diodes, LIDAR, Optical fibers, Optoelectronics, Photonic integrated circuits, Space based lasers, Spaceflight missions

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Proceedings Article | 9 September 2019 Paper

Optical system design and integration of the Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation Lidar

Shane Wake, Luis Ramos-Izquierdo, Bente Eegholm, Peter Dogoda, Zachary Denny, Michael Hersh, Michael Mulloney, W. Joe Thomes, Melanie Ott, Hali Jakeman, Demetrios Poulios, Peter Mule, Erich de Leon, J. Bryan Blair

Proceedings Volume 11128, 111280J (2019) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2530653

KEYWORDS: Transmitters, Receivers, Fiber optics, Sensors, Beam expanders, Optical fabrication, Optical alignment, Optical design, Collimators, Telescopes, LIDAR, Remote sensing system design, Active remote sensing, Remote sensing

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Proceedings Article | 21 November 2017 Open Access

The optical fiber array bundle assemblies for the NASA lunar reconnaissance orbiter; evaluation lessons learned for flight implementation from the NASA electronic parts and packaging program

Melanie Ott, Robert Switzer, Richard Chuska, Frank LaRocca, William Thomes, Lance Day, Shawn MacMurphy

Proceedings Volume 10566, 1056618 (2017) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2308221

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Proceedings Article | 20 November 2017 Open Access

Development and qualification of a fiber optic cable for Martian environments

C. Lindensmith, W. T. Roberts, M. Meacham, M. Ott, F. LaRocca, W. J. Thomes

Proceedings Volume 10565, 1056519 (2017) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2309109

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Proceedings Article | 20 November 2017 Open Access

Multi-mode optical fibers for connecting space-based spectrometers

W. T. Roberts, C. Lindenmisth, S. Bender, E. Miller, E. Motts, M. Ott, F. LaRocca, J. Thomes

Proceedings Volume 10565, 105651A (2017) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2309137

KEYWORDS: Spectrometers, Optical fibers, Cladding, Astronomical imaging, Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, Head, Light scattering, Silica, Plasma

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Laser spectral analysis systems are increasingly being considered for in situ analysis of the atomic and molecular composition of selected rock and soil samples on other planets [1][2][3]. Both Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) and Raman spectroscopy are used to identify the constituents of soil and rock samples in situ. LIBS instruments use a high peak-power laser to ablate a minute area of the surface of a sample. The resulting plasma is observed with an optical head, which collects the emitted light for analysis by one or more spectrometers. By identifying the ion emission lines observed in the plasma, the constituent elements and their abundance can be deduced. In Raman spectroscopy, laser photons incident on the sample surface are scattered and experience a Raman shift, exchanging small amounts of energy with the molecules scattering the light. By observing the spectrum of the scattered light, it is possible to determine the molecular composition of the sample.

For both types of instruments, there are advantages to physically separating the light collecting optics from the spectroscopy optics. The light collection system will often have articulating or rotating elements to facilitate the interrogation of multiple samples with minimum expenditure of energy and motion. As such, the optical head is often placed on a boom or an appendage allowing it to be pointed in different directions or easily positioned in different locations. By contrast, the spectrometry portion of the instrument is often well-served by placing it in a more static location. The detectors often operate more consistently in a thermally-controlled environment. Placing them deep within the spacecraft structure also provides some shielding from ionizing radiation, extending the instrument’s useful life. Finally, the spectrometry portion of the instrument often contains significant mass, such that keeping it off of the moving portion of the platform, allowing that portion to be significantly smaller, less massive and less robust.

Large core multi-mode optical fibers are often used to accommodate the optical connection of the two separated portions of such instrumentation. In some cases, significant throughput efficiency improvement can be realized by judiciously orienting the strands of multi-fiber cable, close-bunching them to accommodate a tight focus of the optical system on the optical side of the connection, and splaying them out linearly along a spectrometer slit on the other end.

For such instrumentation to work effectively in identifying elements and molecules, and especially to produce accurate quantitative results, the spectral throughput of the optical fiber connection must be consistent over varying temperatures, over the range of motion of the optical head (and it’s implied optical cable stresses), and over angle-aperture invariant of the total system. While the first two of these conditions have been demonstrated[4], spectral observations of the latter present a cause for concern, and may have an impact on future design of fiber-connected LIBS and Raman spectroscopy instruments. In short, we have observed that the shape of the spectral efficiency curve of a large multi-mode core optical fiber changes as a function of input angle.

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Proceedings Article | 20 November 2017 Open Access

Fiber optic cables for transmission of high-power laser pulses in spaceflight applications

W. J. Thomes, M. Ott, R. Chuska, R. Switzer, D. Blair

Proceedings Volume 10565, 105651I (2017) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2309144

KEYWORDS: Polishing, Fiber lasers, Laser damage threshold, Optical fiber cables, High power lasers, Optics manufacturing, Gas lasers, Space operations, Glasses, Astronomical imaging

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Proceedings Article | 19 September 2016 Paper

Cryogenic fiber optic assemblies for spaceflight environments: design, manufacturing, testing, and integration

W. Joe Thomes, Melanie Ott, Richard Chuska, Robert Switzer, Eleanya Onuma, Diana Blair, Erich Frese, Marc Matyseck

Proceedings Volume 9981, 99810F (2016) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2238579

KEYWORDS: Fiber optics, Optical fabrication, Optics manufacturing, James Webb Space Telescope, Cryogenics, Fiber optics tests, Reliability, Manufacturing, Connectors, Interfaces

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Proceedings Article | 19 September 2016 Paper

The fiber optic system for the advanced topographic laser altimeter system instrument (ATLAS)

Melanie Ott, W. Joe Thomes, Eleanya Onuma, Robert Switzer, Richard Chuska, Diana Blair, Erich Frese, Marc Matyseck

Proceedings Volume 9981, 99810C (2016) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2238561

KEYWORDS: Fiber optics, Receivers, Fiber lasers, Optical fibers, Optical fabrication, Connectors, Telescopes, Space telescopes, Calibration, Data modeling

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The Advanced Topographic Laser Altimeter System (ATLAS) Instrument has been in integration and testing over the past 18 months in preparation for the Ice, Cloud and Land Elevation Satellite – 2 (ICESat-2) Mission, scheduled to launch in 2017. ICESat-2 is the follow on to ICESat which launched in 2003 and operated until 2009. ATLAS will measure the elevation of ice sheets, glaciers and sea ice or the “cryosphere” (as well as terrain) to provide data for assessing the earth’s global climate changes. Where ICESat’s instrument, the Geo-Science Laser Altimeter (GLAS) used a single beam measured with a 70 m spot on the ground and a distance between spots of 170 m, ATLAS will measure a spot size of 10 m with a spacing of 70 cm using six beams to measure terrain height changes as small as 4 mm.[1] The ATLAS pulsed transmission system consists of two lasers operating at 532 nm with transmitter optics for beam steering, a diffractive optical element that splits the signal into 6 separate beams, receivers for start pulse detection and a wavelength tracking system. The optical receiver telescope system consists of optics that focus all six beams into optical fibers that feed a filter system that transmits the signal via fiber assemblies to the detectors. Also included on the instrument is a system that calibrates the alignment of the transmitted pulses to the receiver optics for precise signal capture. The larger electro optical subsystems for transmission, calibration, and signal receive, stay aligned and transmitting sufficiently due to the optical fiber system that links them together. The robust design of the fiber optic system, consisting of a variety of multi fiber arrays and simplex assemblies with multiple fiber core sizes and types, will enable the system to maintain consistent critical alignments for the entire life of the mission. Some of the development approaches used to meet the challenging optical system requirements for ATLAS are discussed here.

Proceedings Article | 4 August 2016 Paper

iLocater: a diffraction-limited Doppler spectrometer for the Large Binocular Telescope

Justin Crepp, Jonathan Crass, David King, Andrew Bechter, Eric Bechter, Ryan Ketterer, Robert Reynolds, Philip Hinz, Derek Kopon, David Cavalieri, Louis Fantano, Corina Koca, Eleanya Onuma, Karl Stapelfeldt, Joseph Thomes, Sheila Wall, Steven Macenka, James McGuire, Ronald Korniski, Leonard Zugby, Joshua Eisner, B Gaudi, Fred Hearty, Kaitlin Kratter, Marc Kuchner, Giusi Micela, Matthew Nelson, Isabella Pagano, Andreas Quirrenbach, Christian Schwab, Michael Skrutskie, Alessandro Sozzetti, Charles Woodward, Bo Zhao

Proceedings Volume 9908, 990819 (2016) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2233135

KEYWORDS: Adaptive optics, Doppler effect, Spectroscopy, Telescopes, Spectrographs, Adaptive optics, Space telescopes, Spectral resolution, Cameras, Single mode fibers, Planets

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Proceedings Article | 18 July 2014 Paper

JWST ASPA fiber optic development for testing at 2.12 µm

Ben Gallagher, Scott Knight, Allison Barto, Joe Thomes, Melanie Ott

Proceedings Volume 9151, 91515W (2014) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2055031

KEYWORDS: James Webb Space Telescope, Cryogenics, Optical testing, Fiber optics tests, Fiber optics, Optical fiber cables, Adaptive optics, Neodymium, Signal attenuation, Space telescopes

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Proceedings Article | 14 September 2011 Paper

Proton radiation testing of laser optical components for NASA Jupiter Europa Orbiter Mission

W. Joe Thomes, John Cavanaugh, Melanie Ott

Proceedings Volume 8164, 816403 (2011) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.895816

KEYWORDS: Jupiter, Ceramics, Bandpass filters, Optical components, Nd:YAG lasers, Transmittance, Crystals, Laser optics, Signal attenuation, Q switch crystals

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Proceedings Article | 14 September 2011 Paper

Fiber optic cables for transmission of high-power laser pulses

W. Joe Thomes, Melanie Ott, Richard Chuska, Robert Switzer, Diana Blair

Proceedings Volume 8164, 81640F (2011) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.895964

KEYWORDS: Polishing, Fiber lasers, High power lasers, Laser damage threshold, Connectors, Pulsed laser operation, Optical fiber cables, Inspection, Explosives, Metals

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Proceedings Article | 14 September 2011 Paper

Small form factor optical fiber connector evaluation for harsh environments

Melanie Ott, W. Joe Thomes, Richard Chuska, Robert Switzer, Diana Blair

Proceedings Volume 8164, 81640E (2011) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.895961

KEYWORDS: Connectors, Diamond, Optical fibers, Optical fabrication, Single mode fibers, Packaging, Manufacturing, Multimode fibers, Laser drilling, Assembly tolerances

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Proceedings Article | 3 September 2008 Paper

Applications of optical fiber assemblies in harsh environments: the journey past, present, and future

Melanie Ott, Frank LaRocca, William Joe Thomes, Robert Switzer, Richard Chuska, Shawn Macmurphy

Proceedings Volume 7070, 707009 (2008) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.797021

KEYWORDS: Optical fibers, Connectors, Optical fabrication, Ranging, Telecommunications, Fiber lasers, Optics manufacturing, Space telescopes, Mercury, Fiber optics

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Proceedings Article | 3 September 2008 Paper

Fiber optic cable thermal preparation to ensure stable operation

William Thomes, Richard Chuska, Melanie Ott, Frank LaRocca, Robert Switzer, Shawn Macmurphy

Proceedings Volume 7070, 70700B (2008) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.796977

KEYWORDS: Optical fiber cables, Connectors, Single mode fibers, Temperature metrology, Manufacturing, Coating, Sensors, Transmittance, Fiber coatings, Polymers

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Proceedings Article | 3 September 2008 Paper

Vibration performance comparison study on current fiber optic connector technologies

William Thomes, Frank LaRocca, Robert Switzer, Melanie Ott, Richard Chuska, Shawn Macmurphy

Proceedings Volume 7070, 70700A (2008) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.796644

KEYWORDS: Connectors, Shape memory alloys, Fiber optics, Polishing, Metals, Optical fiber cables, Fiber optics tests, Step index fibers, Ceramics, Inspection

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Proceedings Article | 26 August 2008 Paper

Development, qualification, and integration of the optical fiber array assemblies for the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter

Melanie Ott, Robert Switzer, Richard Chuska, Frank LaRocca, William Joe Thomes, Shawn MacMurphy

Proceedings Volume 7095, 70950P (2008) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.797216

KEYWORDS: Ranging, Optical fibers, Fiber lasers, Optical fabrication, Optical arrays, Connectors, Fiber optics, Antennas, Space telescopes, Telescopes

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Proceedings Article | 26 August 2008 Paper

Temperature and dose-rate effects in gamma irradiated rare-earth doped fibers

B. Fox, K. Simmons-Potter, W. Thomes, D. Meister, R. Bambha, D. Kliner

Proceedings Volume 7095, 70950B (2008) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.795595

KEYWORDS: Optical fibers, Transmittance, Ocean optics, Absorption, Xenon, Spectroscopy, Silicon, Erbium, Ytterbium, Fiber amplifiers

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Proceedings Article | 14 April 2008 Paper

Overview of Sandia's fiber laser program

Dahv A. Kliner, Ray Bambha, Binh Do, Roger Farrow, Jean-Philippe Fève, Brian Fox, G. Ronald Hadley, Andrea Hansen, Hanna Hoffman, Mircea Hotoleanu, Alexandra Hoops, Wen Hsu, Jeffrey Koplow, Joona Koponen, Sean Moore, Randal Schmitt, Paul Schrader, Joseph Simmons, Kelly Simmons-Potter, Arlee Smith, Mikko Söderlund, W. Joseph Thomes, Georg Wien

Proceedings Volume 6952, 695202 (2008) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.782227

KEYWORDS: Fiber amplifiers, Diodes, Fiber lasers, Optical amplifiers, 3D modeling, Nonlinear dynamics, Optical damage, Performance modeling, Optical filters, Optical pumping

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Proceedings Article | 22 February 2008 Paper

Radiation damage effects in doped fiber materials

B. Fox, K. Simmons-Potter, J. Simmons, W. Thomes, R. Bambha, D. Kliner

Proceedings Volume 6873, 68731F (2008) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.778764

KEYWORDS: Transmittance, Ocean optics, Radiation effects, Silicon, Absorption, Optical fibers, Gamma radiation, Resistance, Near infrared, Spectroscopy

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Proceedings Article | 26 September 2007 Paper

Investigation of radiation-induced photodarkening in passive erbium-, ytterbium-, and Yb/Er co-doped optical fibers

B. Fox, K. Simmons-Potter, J. Simmons, W. Thomes, R. Bambha, D. A. Kliner

Proceedings Volume 6713, 67130R (2007) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.735212

KEYWORDS: Optical fibers, Transmittance, Ocean optics, Gamma radiation, Absorption, Silicon, Resistance, Spectroscopy, Erbium, Color centers

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Proceedings Article | 26 September 2007 Paper

Space flight qualification on a novel five-fiber array assembly for the lunar orbiter laser altimeter (LOLA) at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

Xiaodan Linda Jin, Melanie Ott, Frank LaRocca, Richard Chuska, Steve Schmidt, Adam Matuszeski, Shawn Macmurphy, William Thomes, Robert Switzer

Proceedings Volume 6713, 67130S (2007) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.734021

KEYWORDS: Connectors, Phase modulation, Diamond, Signal attenuation, Manufacturing, Sensors, Optical fabrication, Gamma radiation, Lamps, Optical fibers

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Proceedings Article | 26 September 2007 Paper

Investigation of hermetically sealed commercial LiNbO₃ optical modulator for use in laser/LIDAR space-flight applications

William Thomes, Frank LaRocca, Melanie Ott, Xiaodan Linda Jin, Richard Chuska, Shawn MacMurphy, Tracee Jamison

Proceedings Volume 6713, 67130T (2007) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.732525

KEYWORDS: Modulators, Waveguides, Gamma radiation, Optical modulators, Commercial off the shelf technology, Fiber lasers, Crystals, Imaging systems, Optical components, Photodiodes

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Proceedings Article | 13 September 2007 Paper

Impact of ionizing radiation on the optical properties of YAG laser materials

K. Simmons-Potter, A. Vaddigiri, W. Thomes, D. Meister

Proceedings Volume 6662, 666204 (2007) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.736559

KEYWORDS: YAG lasers, Absorption, Spectroscopy, Nd:YAG lasers, Luminescence, Ionizing radiation, Neodymium, Optical properties, Rod lasers, Color centers

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Proceedings Article | 13 September 2007 Paper

Optically powered firing set using miniature photovoltaic arrays

Jason Shelton, Fred Dickey, William Thomes

Proceedings Volume 6662, 666206 (2007) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.736907

KEYWORDS: Capacitors, Semiconductor lasers, Resistance, Transformers, Mathematical modeling, Photovoltaics, Fiber coupled lasers, Performance modeling, Safety, Diodes

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Proceedings Article | 23 February 2007 Paper

Gamma radiation effects in Yb-doped optical fiber

B. Fox, Z. Schneider, K. Simmons-Potter, W. Thomes, D. Meister, R. Bambha, D. Kliner

Proceedings Volume 6453, 645328 (2007) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.712244

KEYWORDS: Transmittance, Silicon, Gamma radiation, Optical fibers, Fiber lasers, Ocean optics, Color centers, Ytterbium, Radiation effects, Spectroscopy

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Determination of the radiation response of doped-fiber laser materials, systems and components to relevant ionizing radiation fluxes is central to the prediction of long-term fiber-based laser performance/survivability in adverse and/or space-based environments. It is well known that optical elements that are placed into orbit around the Earth experience harsh radiation environments that originate from trapped-particle belts, cosmic rays, and solar events. Of particular interest to optical materials is the continuous flux of gamma photons that the materials encounter. Such radiation exposure commonly leads to the formation of color centers in a broad range of optical materials. Such color center formation gives rise to changes in optical transmission, loss and luminescent band structure, and, thus, impacts long-term optical device performance. In this paper we will present the results of our investigation of gamma-radiation-induced photodarkening on the passive optical transmittance of a number of ytterbium- (Yb-) doped optical fibers. We will discuss the evolution of the optical response of the fiber across the 1.0 to 1.6 micron wavelength window with increasing gamma exposure. Results indicate that these fibers exhibit reasonable radiation resistance to gamma exposures typical of a 5-year, low-earth-orbit environment. Maximum transmittance losses of less than 10% were observed for total gamma exposures of 2-5 krad (Si). In this paper we will present the results of our investigation of gamma-radiation-induced photodarkening on the optical transmittance of a number of ytterbium- (Yb-) doped optical fibers. We will discuss the evolution of the optical response of the fiber across the 1.0 to 1.6 micron wavelength window with increasing gamma exposure. Results indicate that these fibers exhibit reasonable radiation resistance to gamma exposures typical of a 5-year, low-earth orbit environment. Maximum transmittance losses of less than 10% were observed for total gamma exposures of 2-5 krad (Si).

Proceedings Article | 1 September 2006 Paper

Photosensitive polysilane thin films for write-as-needed optical devices

K. Simmons-Potter, B. Potter, G. Jamison, W. Thomes

Proceedings Volume 6287, 628706 (2006) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.683677

KEYWORDS: Refractive index, Absorption, Thin films, Absorbance, Atmospheric optics, Ultraviolet radiation, UV optics, Polymers, Photosensitive materials, Optical components

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Proceedings Article | 19 August 2005 Paper

Design considerations for multi-fiber injection

D. Brown, F. Dickey, W. Thomes

Proceedings Volume 5871, 587106 (2005) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.619552

KEYWORDS: Optical fibers, Beam splitters, Diffraction gratings, Microlens array, Diffraction, Microlens, Homogenization, Etching, Energy efficiency, Beam homogenizers

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Proceedings Article | 19 August 2005 Paper

Radiation-induced optical response of single-crystal and polycrystalline YAG

A. Vaddigiri, K. Simmons-Potter, W. Thomes, D. Meister

Proceedings Volume 5871, 587108 (2005) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.620304

KEYWORDS: YAG lasers, Gamma radiation, Transmittance, Charged particle optics, Color centers, Ceramics, Signal attenuation, Ionizing radiation, Crystals, Singular optics

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