Based on a drift-diffusion simulator, 2D modeling of perovskite/Si tandem solar cell with tunnel junction is presented in this work. Current matching is explored between the two sub-cells. It is demonstrated that the basic tandem cell can achieve conversion efficiency as high as 28.27% with open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current density as 2.04 V and 16.18 mA/cm2 , respectively. As approaches for cell design optimization, the results are also analyzed versus the thickness and the minority carrier recombination lifetime of the perovskite layer. Efforts to incorporate coating, to consider texture effect for the bottom Si cell as well as to look for alternative electron transport layer for the top junction are also performed, presented and discussed. Efficiency as high as 36.40% is further projected.
Two-dimensional modeling of the InP/InGaAsP modified uni-traveling carrier photodiodes is reported. Basic device characteristics like dark I-V curve, device capacitance effect, frequency response and bandwidth etc., are presented. The simulation shows high bandwidth comparable with the experimental report. The results are further discussed with respect to the cliff layer dopant density
Modeling of InGaAs/AlGaAsSb avalanche photodiodes (APDs) is presented in this work. Based on a drift-diffusion theory, the APD dark- and photo-current and multiplication gain are simulated. The frequency response and bandwidth are also computed based on a derived formalism by following the carrier transit analyses. Modeling results of I-V curves, multiplication gain, breakdown voltage, excess noise factor, -3dB bandwidth and gain-bandwidth product are demonstrated. Some results are compared with the experimental report. The APD performance is further evaluated with respect to two of the key design factors, the multiplication and the absorption layer thickness, respectively.
In this paper, the optical problem of the Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser (VCSEL) is analyzed in details. Taking advantage of the VCSEL layer structure, Maxwell’s equation is discretized on uniform Yee grid, and the rigorous full vectorial Finite Difference Frequency Domain (FDFD) method was used to formulate and solve the complex eigenvalue problem. The full vectorial solver is well suited for the fundamental as well as the higher-order modes and includes different field polarization. The method is demonstrated for advanced VCSEL incorporating the surface reliefs and the oxide layer. In order to compare with the experimental structure, a superposition of the VCSEL modes is used to construct the Linearly Polarized (LP) mode.
Modeling of waveguide AlInAs avalanche photodiodes is reported in this work. Based on beam propagation method analyses, the waveguide design and evanescent coupling are investigated at first. The APD dark- and photo-response and multiplication gain are further simulated based on a drift-diffusion method. The frequency response and bandwidth are also evaluated based on carrier transit analysis formalism. Modeling results of I-V curves, multiplication gain, breakdown voltage, excess noise factor, -3dB bandwidth and gain-bandwidth product are presented with some consistently compared with reported experimental demonstration.
In this work, two-dimensional modeling of planar junction AlInAs avalanche photodiodes is reported. Modeling results of dark/photo current, multiplication gain, breakdown voltage, -3dB bandwidth and gain-bandwidth product, and excess noise etc., are presented. The modeling results of multiplication gain and -3dB bandwidth are consistent with the reported experimental demonstration. Design optimization is also explored for high gain-bandwidth product for such AlInAs avalanche photodiodes.
Three-dimensional (3D) modeling is reported for CMOS active pixel image sensors particularly by comparing front surface and back-surface illumination. The opto-electronic responses are presented versus various power intensity and illumination wavelength. The optical efficiency and quantum efficiency from FDTD modeling are also presented. For appropriately designed sensor structure, it is shown that back-surface illumination pixel could achieve improved sensitivity within certain wavelength range. The presented results demonstrate a methodological and technical capability for 3D modeling optimization of complex CMOS image sensor.
Based on Crosslight APSYS, we have made 2D simulation of dual and triple junction solar cells based on CdZnTe and
CdTe material system on Si substrate with tunnel junctions. The basic physical quantities like band diagram, optical
absorption and generation for these solar cells, and external quantum efficiency for individual subcell junctions of triple
junction solar cells are obtained. Current matching analyses and multi-sun concentration simulation are also performed.
The modeling shows efficiency 28.85% (one sun AM1.5G) for CdZnTe/Si dual junction solar cells and efficiency
34.92% (one sun AM1.5G) and maximum 39.09% (multi-sun concentration around 500-700 suns) for CdZnTe/CdTe/Si
triple junction solar cells. The presented results indicate that the dual and triple junction solar cells with II-VI CdZnTe
and CdTe on Si can achieve efficiency comparable to those III-V based compound on Ge substrate.
KEYWORDS: Solar cells, Tandem solar cells, Transparent conductors, Copper indium gallium selenide, Absorption, Interfaces, Thin film solar cells, Molybdenum, Quantum efficiency, Solid modeling
Based on Crosslight APSYS, single junction ZnTe/CdSe, CdZnTe/CdSe and CIGS/CdS solar cells as well as
CdZnTe(CdSe)/CIGS tandem cells are modeled. Basic physical quantities like band diagrams, optical absorption and
generation are obtained. Quantum efficiency and I-V curves are presented. The results are discussed with respect to the
interface recombination velocity and the related material defect trap states for ZnTe/CdSe single junction solar cells and
the top TCO layer affinity for tandem cells. The projected efficiency obtained is 28% for one of the modeled twoterminal
tandem cells. The modeling results give possible clues for developing CdZnTe(CdSe)/CIGS tandem solar cells
with increased efficiency.
Based on Crosslight APSYS, thin film amorphous Si (a-Si:H)/microcrystalline (μc-Si) dual-junction (DJ) and a-
Si:H/amorphous SiGe:H (a-SiGe:H)/μc-Si triple-junction (TJ) solar cells are modeled. Basic physical quantities like
band diagrams, optical absorption and generation are obtained. Quantum efficiency and I-V curves for individual
junctions are presented for current matching analyses. The whole DJ and TJ cell I-V curves are also presented and the
results are discussed with respect to the top surface ZnO:Al TCO layer affinity. The interface texture effect is modeled
with FDTD (finite difference time domain) module and results for top junction are presented. The modeling results give
possible clues to achieve high efficiency for DJ and TJ thin film solar cells.
In this work, based on the advanced drift and diffusion theory with improved tunneling junction model, two-dimensional
modeling for the GaInP/GaAs/Ge and the inverted-grown metamorphic GaInP/GaAs/GaInAs triple-junction solar cells
are performed by using a commercial software, the Crosslight APSYS. Basic physical quantities like band diagram,
optical absorption and generation are obtained and characteristic results such as I-V curves, current matching, fill factor,
efficiency etc under one-sun and multi-sun illumination are presented. Some of the modeling results generally agree with
the published experimental results for both TJ cells. Comparative analyses are made with these two TJ cells and
optimization approaches are discussed with respect to minority carrier lifetime, front anti-reflection coating, and top
contact grid size and spacing.
In this work, based on the advanced drift and diffusion model with commercial software, the Crosslight APSYS, twodimensional
photoresponsivity behavior for the InP/InGaAs separate absorption, grading, charge and multiplication
avalanche photodiodes have been modeled to analyze suppressing premature edge breakdown. Basic physical quantities
like band diagram, photon absorption, carrier generation and electric field as well as performance characteristics such as
photocurrent, multiplication gain, and breakdown voltage etc., are obtained and selectively presented. Modeling results
indicate that an etched mesa structure with the charge sheet layer can effectively suppress the premature edge breakdown
in the device periphery region. Optimization modeling results with mesa step height are also demonstrated. Approach to
model complex guard ring structure with double diffusion is further explored. Possible combination of Crosslight
CSuprem diffusion profile is also discussed.
Based on Crosslight APSYS, two-dimensional simulations have been performed on Si-based solar cell devices especially
those with V-grooved surface texture. These Si-based solar cells include rear-contacted cells and passivated emitter, rear
totally diffused cells etc. The APSYS simulator is based on drift-diffusion theory with many advanced features. It can
enable an efficient computation across the whole solar spectra by taking into account the effects of multiple layer optical
interference and photon generation. The integrated ray-tracing module can compute optical absorption through the
complex texture surface with multiple antireflection coating layers. Basic physical quantities like band diagram, optical
absorption and generation can be demonstrated. The I-V characteristics with short-circuit current density and open-circuit
voltage agree with the published experimental results and enhanced cell efficiency is shown with the V-grooved
texture. The results are analyzed with respect to surface recombination, antireflection coating, bulk doping/resistivity and
lifetime etc. Modeling capabilities for polycrystalline silicon and amorphous silicon cells are also discussed.
In this work, we report dark current reduction, which is achieved by surface treatment with Octadecylthiol (OTD), for
GaInAsSb based photodetectors. Epitaxial layers of the GaInAsSb photodetector were grown on n-type GaSb substrates
with a horizontal MOCVD reactor, and the devices were fabricated by wet chemical etching. Surface treatment was
carried out by immersing fresh-prepared detector samples in molten ODT solution maintained at 100 °C for 5 hours. The
ODT treated devices show an order of magnitude reduction in the leakage current density in comparison with the
untreated devices. The inverse of the dynamic zero bias resistance area product (1/R0A) is also lower for ODT treated
devices. XPS analyses indicate the formation of Ga-S (20.1 eV) and In-S (445.3 eV) bonds at the surface and reduction
in the formation of native oxide on ODT treated GaInAsSb surface. This means that surface treatment with ODT can
effectively passivate dangling bonds and also reduce the native oxide. These results indicate that ODT can be used for an
effective passivation technique when more sophisticated processing steps are further developed.
Based on the advanced drift-diffusion simulator, the Crosslight APSYS, InGaAs/AlGaAs resonant cavity enhanced
separate absorption charge and multiplication APDs for high bit-rate operations have been modeled. The APSYS
simulator is based on drift-diffusion theory with many advanced features. Basic physical quantities like band diagram,
optical absorption and generation are calculated. Performance characteristics such as dark current and photocurrent,
multiplication gain, breakdown voltage, photoresponsivity, quantum efficiency, impulse response and bandwidth etc.,
are presented. The modeled results of multiplication gain and bandwidth are comparable to the experimental. The results
are also discussed with respect to some applicable features of Crosslight APSYS.
In this work, based on the advanced commercial software, the Crosslight APSYS with improved tunnel junction model, two-dimensional (2D) simulation has been performed on the triple-junction (TJ) GaInP/GaAs/Ge solar cell devices. The APSYS simulator solves several interwoven equations including the basic Poisson's equation, and drift-diffusion current equations for electrons and holes. The model of tunnel junction with the equivalent mobility enables an efficient modeling of multi-junction solar cell across the whole solar spectra, where all the spectrum data points are processed by taking into account the effects of multiple layer optical interference and photon generation. Basic physical quantities like band diagrams, optical absorption and generation are demonstrated. The modeled IV characteristics and offset voltage agree well with the published experimental results for TJ GaInP/GaAs/Ge solar cell device. The quantum efficiency spectra have also been computed for the modeled TJ solar cell device. Possible design optimization issues to enhance the quantum efficiency have also been discussed with respect to some applicable features of Crosslight APSYS.
Multicolor detectors have a strong potential to replace conventional single-color detectors in application dealing with the simultaneous detection of more than one wavelength. This will lead to the reduction of heavy and complex optical components now required for spectral discrimination for multi-wavelengths applications. This multicolor technology is simpler, lighter, compact and cheaper with respect to the single-color ones. In this paper, Sb-based two-color detectors fabrication and characterization are presented. The color separation is achieved by fabricating dual band pn junction on a GaSb substrate. The first band consists of an InGaAsSb pn junction for long wavelength detection, while the second band consists of a GaSb pn junction for shorter wavelength detection. Three metal contacts were deposited to access the individual junctions. Surface morphology of multi-layer thin films and also device characteristics of quasi-dual band photodetector were characterized using standard optical microscope and electro-optic techniques respectively. Dark current measurements illustrated the diode behavior of both lattice-matched detector bands. Spectral response measurements indicated either independent operation of both detectors simultaneously, or selective operation of one detector, by the polarity of the bias voltage, while serially accessing both devices.
Avalanche photodiodes (APDs) are being widely utilized in various application fields where a compact technology computer aided design (TCAD) kit capable for APD modeling is highly demanded. In this work, based on the advanced drift and diffusion model with commercial software, the Crosslight APSYS, avalanche photodiodes, especially the InP/InGaAs separate absorption, grading, charge and multiplication (SAGCM) APDs for high bit-rate operation have been modeled. Basic physical quantities like band diagram, optical absorption and generation are calculated. Performance characteristics such as dark- and photo-current, photoresponsivity/multiplication gain, breakdown voltage, excess noise, frequency response and bandwidth etc., are simulated. The modeling results are selectively presented, analyzed, and some of results are compared with the experimental. Device design optimization issues are further discussed with respect to the applicable features of the Crosslight APSYS within the framework of drift-diffusion theory.
Sb-based dual-band detectors were fabricated and characterized. The first band consists of an InGaAsSb pn junction for long wavelength detection, while the second band consists of a GaSb pn junction for shorter wavelength detection. Both bands were grown, lattice-matched to a GaSb substrate, using metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy. Three metal contacts were deposited to access the individual junctions. Spectral response measurements indicated either independent operation of both detectors simultaneously, or bias selective operation for one detector while serially accessing both devices.
InP/InGaAs avalanche photodiodes (APDs) are being widely utilized in optical receivers for modern long haul and high bit-rate optical fiber communication systems. The separate absorption, grading, charge, and multiplication (SAGCM) structure is an important design consideration for APDs with high performance characteristics. Time domain modeling techniques have been previously developed to provide better understanding and optimize design issues by saving time and cost for the APD research and development. In this work, performance dependences on multiplication layer thickness have been investigated by time domain modeling. These performance characteristics include breakdown field and breakdown voltage, multiplication gain, excess noise factor, frequency response and bandwidth etc. The simulations are performed versus various multiplication layer thicknesses with certain fixed values for the areal charge sheet density whereas the values for the other structure and material parameters are kept unchanged. The frequency response is obtained from the impulse response by fast Fourier transformation. The modeling results are presented and discussed, and design considerations, especially for high speed operation at 10 Gbit/s, are further analyzed.
NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC), in partnership with the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI), developed photovoltaic infrared (IR) detectors suitable at two different wavelengths using Sb-based material systems. Using lattice-matched InGaAsSb grown on GaSb substrates, dual wavelength detectors operating at 1.7 and 2.5 micron wavelengths can be realized. P-N junction diodes are fabricated on both GaSb and InGaAsSb materials. The photodiode on GaSb detects wavelengths at 1.7 micron and the InGaAsSb detector detects wavelengths at 2.2 micron or longer depending on the composition. The films for these devices are grown by metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE). The cross section of the independently accessed back-to-back photodiode dual band detector consists of a p-type substrate on which n-on-p GaInAsSb junction is grown, followed by a p-on-n GaSb junction. There are three ohmic contacts in this structure, one to the p-GaSb top layer, one to the n-GaSb/n-GaInAsSb layer and one to the p-type GaSb substrate. The common terminal is the contact to the n-GaSb/n-GaInAsSb layer. The contact to the n-GaSb/p-GaInAsSb region of the photodiode in the dual band is electrically connected and is accessed at the edge of the photodiode. NASA LaRC acquired the fabricated dual band detector from RPI and characterized the detector at its Detector Characterization Laboratory. Characterization results, such as responsivity, noise, quantum efficiency, and detectivity will be presented.
Metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) of GaSb/InGaAsSb multilayer thin films and fabrication of bias-selectable dual band photodetectors are reported. For the dual band photodetectors the short wavelength detector, or the upper p-GaSb/n-GaSb junction photodiode, is placed optically ahead of the long wavelength one, or the lower photodiode. The latter is based on latticed-matched In0.13Ga0.87As0.11Sb0.89with bandgap near 0.6 eV. Specifically, high quality multilayer thin films are grown sequentially from top to bottom as p+-GaSb/p-GaSb/n-GaSb/n-InGaAsSb/p-InGaAsSb/p-GaSb on undoped p-type GaSb substrate, and as n-GaSb/p-GaSb/p-InGaAsSb/n-InGaAsSb/n-GaSb on Te-doped n-type GaSb substrate respectively. The multilayer thin films are characterized by optical microscope, atomic force microscope (AFM), electron microprobe analyses etc. The photodiode mesa steps are patterned by photolithography with wet chemical etching and the front metallization is carried out by e-beam evaporation with Pd/Ge/Au/Ti/Au to give ohmic contact on both n- and p-type Sb based layer surfaces. Dark I-V measurements show typical diode behavior for both the upper and lower photodiodes. The photoresponsivity measurements indicate that both the upper and lower photodiodes can sense the infrared illumination corresponding to their cutoff wavelengths respectively, comparable with the simulation results. More work is underway to bring the long wavelength band to the medium infrared wavelength region near 4 μm.
Knowledge of the spatial and temporal distribution of atmospheric species such as CO2, O3, H2O, and CH4 is important for understanding the chemistry and physical cycles involving Earth's atmosphere. Although several remote sensing techniques are suitable for such measurements they are considered high cost techniques involving complicated instrumentation. Therefore, simultaneous measurement of atmospheric species using a single remote sensing instrument is significant for minimizing cost, size and complexity. While maintaining the instrument sensitivity and range, quality of multicolor detector, in terms of high quantum efficiency and low noise are vital for these missions. As the first step for developing multicolor focal plan array, the structure of a single element multicolor detector is presented in this paper. The detector consists of three p-n junction layers of Si, GaSb and InAs wafer bonded to cover the spectral range UV to 900 nm, 800 nm to 1.7 micron, and 1.5 micron to 3.4 micron, respectively. Modeling of the absorption coefficient for each material was carried out for optimizing the layers thicknesses for maximum absorption. The resulted quantum efficiency of each layer has been determined except InAs layer. The optical and electrical characterization of each layer structure is reported including dark current and spectral response measurements of Si pin structure and of GaSb and InAs p-n junctions. The effect of the material processing is discussed.
We describe here the fabrication and characterization of novel organic electro-optic materials composed of self-assembled superlattices. The SAS structures are intrinsically acentric and exhibit large second harmonic generation and electro-optic responses. This approach using SAS electro-optic materials has advantages such as not requiring poling for creating nonlinearity in the films and efficient film growth on a variety of substrates over large areas. Prototype waveguide electro-optic modulators have been fabricated using SAS films integrated wtih low-loss polymeric materials functioning as partial guiding and cladding layers. The waveguide EO modulators are fabricated using a multistep process including e-beam deposition, plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition, photolithogrpahy, and reactive ion etching. Electro-optic parameters such as thehalf-wave voltage and the effective electro-optic coefficient, and the velocity mismatch between the optical and radio frequency waves have been evaluated.
By using a simplified time domain modeling approach, the temperature dependent performance characteristics such as multiplication gain and bandwidth are studied for InP/InGaAs separate absorption, grading, charge and multiplication (SAGCM) APDs within the temperature range from -243 to 358 K. The modeling approach is improved to consider the effects of hole diffusion, hole trapping, load circuit RC and gain-bandwidth product limit together with the fast Fourier transformation component of the impulse response from the time domain computation. The modeling results agree with experiments. The effects of changing material parameters on modeling are also discussed. The improved performance characteristics also indicate the potential application prospects of InP/InGaAs SAGCM APDs in low temperature environments.
An efficient theoretical approach incorporating the mechanism of resonant absorption of the multiple reflected lightwaves is presented to model the frequency response of resonant-cavity (RC) avalanche photodiodes (APDs). Although the theoretical expressions are derived with respect to the RC separate absorption, charge and multiplication (SACM) structure, they are actually very general and can be applied to other RC APD structures and many non-RC APDs. As an example, the theoretical approach is applied to the InGaAs/InAlAs RC SACM APD. The computation results of -3 dB bandwidth based on the present theoretical approach are consistent with the experiment.
This paper presents a brief overview of some of the common high-speed and high-sensitivity photodetectors. These devices are the key components in long-haul, high bit-rate fiber optic communication systems. In this paper, while we describe several types of photodetectors, we concentrate on avalanche photodiodes since they are the current preferred candidates for high bit-rate long-haul fiber optic communication systems. We describe and compare some analytical and stochastic modeling results with experimental data and conclude with a discussion of some state-of-the-art results on photodetectors.
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